Seismic Tomographic Images Research Articles

Comment on “Assessing Discrepancies Between Previous Plate Kinematic Models of Mesozoic Iberia and Their Constraints” by Barnett‐Moore Et Al.

AbstractIn their recent paper, Barnett‐Moore et al. (2016) reflect on current models of Iberian plate motion in the Jurassic and Cretaceous as well as ongoing debates on the reliability of the various types of kinematic data that form independent constraints on Iberia's motion relative to Eurasia. They question the validity of various marine geophysical, seismic, tomographic, geological, and paleomagnetic data sets from the Bay of Biscay, Central Atlantic Ocean, and Iberia for kinematic reconstruction of Iberia and conclude that neither models invoking Aptian‐Albian transtension, nor compression, are consistent with currently available data. An important element in their analysis is that they discard the large paleomagnetic data set from the Jurassic and Cretaceous from Iberia based on perceived limitations of that data set. In addition, they argue that seismic tomographic images exclude a scenario of subduction in the Aptian‐Albian in the Pyrenees, and based on this “question the validity of current plate reconstructions, their constraints, and geodynamic scenarios, which are in support of this scenario [e.g., Vissers et al., 2016].” We welcome the discussion raised by Barnett‐Moore et al. (2016) on the reliability and usefulness of paleomagnetic data as independent constraint for Iberia's plate motion in the Mesozoic. Taking these paleomagnetic data at face value, Vissers et al. (2016) recently showed that these are consistent with an ~40° counterclockwise rotation of Iberia in the Aptian, requiring up to 500 km of Aptian convergence across the Pyrenees, that is, through subduction. In this comment, we aim to critically assess whether and how the concerns on the quality of paleomagnetic data raised by Barnett‐Moore et al. (2016) may allow for an alternative explanation, particularly one with a Mesozoic rotation of Iberia that is small enough so as to not requiring subduction. We also reassess whether seismic tomographic images indeed refute subduction scenarios, using 8 S wave and P wave tomographic models including those used in Barnett‐Moore et al. (2016).

Integrating ambient noise with GIS for a new perspective on volcano imaging and monitoring: The case study of Mt. Etna

The timely estimation of short- and long-term volcanic hazard relies on the availability of detailed 3D geophysical images of volcanic structures. High-resolution seismic models of the absorbing uppermost conduit systems and highly-heterogeneous shallowest volcanic layers, while particularly challenging to obtain, provide important data to locate feasible eruptive centres and forecast flank collapses and lava ascending paths. Here, we model the volcanic structures of Mt. Etna (Sicily, Italy) and its outskirts using the Horizontal to Vertical Spectral Ratio method, generally applied to industrial and engineering settings. The integration of this technique with Web-based Geographic Information System improves precision during the acquisition phase. It also integrates geological and geophysical visualization of 3D surface and subsurface structures in a queryable environment representing their exact three-dimensional geographic position, enhancing interpretation. The results show high-resolution 3D images of the shallowest volcanic and feeding systems, which complement (1) deeper seismic tomography imaging and (2) the results of recent remote sensing imaging. The study recovers a vertical structure that divides the pre-existing volcanic complexes of Ellittico and Cuvigghiuni. This could be interpreted as a transitional phase between the two systems. A comparison with recent remote sensing and geological results, however, shows that anomalies are generally related to volcano-tectonic structures active during the last 17years. We infer that seismic noise measurements from miniaturized instruments, when combined with remote sensing techniques, represent an important resource to monitor volcanoes in unrest, reducing the risk of loss of human lives and instrumentation.

Bridge pier foundation evaluation using cross-hole seismic tomographic imaging

An ambitious project connecting Jammu and Srinagar through a railway link in tectonically active and geologically complex Himalayan Mountain terrain is under progress. Under this project, the world's highest (359m) railway arch-bridge is under construction across the River Chenab in the northern territory of India. This mega engineering structure has a two-fold ribbed arch design, comprising of steel girders. During the excavation for one of the concrete pillars on the right abutment, wide open joints and weak/shear zones were noticed. The width of these joints varies from 30 to 50cm, trending along N170° with a dip of 65°. The foundation area of this pillar is 13m×24m and on the cut slopes of the right bank of Chenab River. These exposed joints and weak zones were treated with consolidation grouting to strengthen the foundation area. To delineate the extent of these joints and weak zones below the foundation level, seismic tomography was carried out in five boreholes drilled for this purpose to cover the 300sq-m area. The results of cross-hole seismic tomography reveals the presence of three low velocity (≤2600m/s) anomalous zones below the foundation area. This also ascertained the efficacy of grouting in consolidating the joints and weak zones. Later, rock-mass quality (Q) was determined based on the relationship between the P-wave velocity and the Q-value (Barton, 2002) to infer the support system for the slope stabilization below the foundation. 3-D visualization of the seismic velocity demarcates the extent of weak or untreated zones. This methodology facilitates to update the design parameters according to Q-values during the construction stage and estimate the required level of reinforcement and support system. Similar methodology can be applicable in other areas under same site conditions.

Mantle seismic anisotropy beneath NE China and implications for the lithospheric delamination hypothesis beneath the southern Great Xing'an range

We measured shear wave splitting from SKS data recorded by the transcontinental NECESSArray in NE China to constrain lithosphere deformation and sublithospheric flows beneath the area. We selected several hundreds of high quality SKS/SKKS waveforms from 32 teleseismic earthquakes occurring between 09/01/2009 and 08/31/2011 recorded by 125 broadband stations. These stations cover a variety of tectonic terranes, including the Songliao basin, the Changbaishan mountain range and Zhangguancai range in the east, the Great Xing'an range in the west and the Yanshan orogenic belt in the southwest. We assumed each station is underlaid by a single anisotropic layer and employed a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) weighted multi-event stacking method to estimate the two splitting parameters (the fast polarization direction φ, and delay time, δt) that gives the best fit to all the SKS/SKKS waveforms recorded at each station. Overall, the measured fast polarization direction lies more or less along the NW–SE direction, which significantly differs from the absolute plate motion direction, but is roughly consistent with the regional extension direction. This suggests that lithosphere deformation is likely the general cause of the observed seismic anisotropy. The most complicated anisotropic structure is observed beneath the southern Great Xing'an range and southwest Songliao basin. The observed large variations in splitting parameters and the seismic tomographic images of the area are consistent with ongoing lithospheric delamination beneath this region.

Seismic Travel-time Tomography beneath Merapi Volcano and its Surroundings: A Preliminary Result from DOMERAPI Project

Many geophysical methods at various scales have been applied to understand the internal structure beneath Merapi volcano and its magmatic process. As part of the DOMERAPI project, a seismic experiment was conducted from October 2013 to mid April 2015 in order to determine the deep magma source beneath the volcano through seismic travel-time tomography. The earthquake events were identified and picked manually and carefully to determine the hypocenters. They were then relocated to get precise hypocenter locations before running the seismic tomographic imaging. The data from the BMKG network from the same period of time as mentioned above were also incorporated to minimize azimuthal gap, because the majority of events occurred outside the DOMERAPI network. The checkerboard resolution test result depicts that the area around the network can be well resolved. Compared to previous studies, our result shows a higher resolution at shallow depths, i.e., less than 35 km and a low velocity material imaged to ascend diagonally from the deeper area.

Relocation of hypocenters from DOMERAPI and BMKG networks: a preliminary result from DOMERAPI project

Merapi volcano located in central Java, Indonesia, is one of the most active stratovolcanoes in the world. Many Earth scientists have conducted studies on this volcano using various methods. The geological features around Merapi are very attractive to be investigated because they have been formed by a complex tectonic process and volcanic activities since tens of millions of years ago. The southern mountain range, Kendeng basin and Opak active fault located around the study area resulted from these processes. DOMERAPI project was conducted to understand deep magma sources of the Merapi volcano comprehensively. The DOMERAPI network was running from October 2013 to mid-April 2015 by deploying 46 broad-band seismometers around the volcano. Several steps, i.e., earthquake event identification, arrival time picking of P and S waves, hypocenter determination and hypocenter relocation, were carried out in this study. We used Geiger’s method (Geiger 1912) for hypocenter determination and double-difference method for hypocenter relocation. The relocation result will be used to carry out seismic tomographic imaging of structures beneath the Merapi volcano and its surroundings. For the hypocenter determination, the DOMERAPI data were processed simultaneously with those from the Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics (BMKG) seismic network in order to minimize the azimuthal gap. We found that the majority of earthquakes occurred outside the DOMERAPI network. There are 464 and 399 earthquakes obtained before and after hypocenter relocation, respectively. The hypocenter relocation result successfully detects some tectonic features, such as a nearly vertical cluster of events indicating a subduction-related backthrust to the south of central Java and a cluster of events to the east of Opak fault suggesting that the fault has an eastward dip.

Crustal and upper mantle structure and deep tectonic genesis of large earthquakes in North China

From the 1960s to 1970s, North China has been hit by a series of large earthquakes. During the past half century, geophysicists have carried out numerous surveys of the crustal and upper mantle structure, and associated studies in North China. They have made significant progress on several key issues in the geosciences, such as the crustal and upper mantle structure and the seismogenic environment of strong earthquakes. Deep seismic profiling results indicate a complex tectonic setting in the strong earthquake areas of North China, where a listric normal fault and a low-angle detachment in the upper crust coexist with a high-angle deep fault passing through the lower crust to the Moho beneath the hypocenter. Seismic tomography images reveal that most of the large earthquakes occurred in the transition between the high- and low-velocity zones, and the Tangshan earthquake area is characterized by a low-velocity anomaly in the middle-lower crust. Comprehensive analysis of geophysical data identified that the deep seismogenic environment in the North China extensional tectonic region is generally characterized by a low-velocity anomalous belt beneath the hypocenter, inconsistency of the deep and shallow structures in the crust, a steep crustalal-scale fault, relative lower velocities in the uppermost mantle, and local Moho uplift, etc. This indicates that the lithospheric structure of North China has strong heterogeneities. Geologically, the North China region had been a stable craton named the North China Craton or in brief the NCC, containing crustal rocks as old as ~3.8 Ga. The present-day strong seismic activity and the lower velocity of the lower crust in the NCC are much different from typical stable cratons around the world. These findings provide significant evidence for the destruction of the NCC. Although deep seismic profiling and seismic tomography have greatly enhanced knowledge about the deep-seated structure and seismogenic environment, some fundamental issues still remain and require further work.

Role of N-S strike-slip faulting in structuring of north-eastern Tunisia; geodynamic implications

Three major compressional events characterized by folding, thrusting and strike-slip faulting occurred in the Eocene, Late Miocene and Quaternary along the NE Tunisian domain between Bou Kornine-Ressas-Msella and Cap Bon Peninsula. During the Plio-Quaternary, the Grombalia and Mornag grabens show a maximum of collapse in parallelism with the NNW-SSE SHmax direction and developed as 3rd order distensives zones within a global compressional regime. Using existing tectonic and geophysical data supplemented by new fault-kinematic observations, we show that Cenozoic deformation of the Mesozoic sedimentary sequences is dominated by first order N-S faults reactivation, this sinistral wrench system is responsible for the formation of strike-slip duplexes, thrusts, folds and grabens. Following our new structural interpretation, the major faults of N-S Axis, Bou Kornine-Ressas-Messella (MRB) and Hammamet-Korbous (HK) form an N-S first order compressive relay within a left lateral strike-slip duplex. The N-S master MRB fault is dominated by contractional imbricate fans, while the parallel HK fault is characterized by a trailing of extensional imbricate fans. The Eocene and Miocene compression phases in the study area caused sinistral strike-slip reactivation of pre-existing N-S faults, reverse reactivation of NE-SW trending faults and normal-oblique reactivation of NW-SE faults, creating a NE-SW to N-S trending system of east-verging folds and overlaps. Existing seismic tomography images suggest a key role for the lithospheric subvertical tear or STEP fault (Slab Transfer Edge Propagator) evidenced below this region on the development of the MRB and the HK relay zone. The presence of extensive syntectonic Pliocene on top of this crustal scale fault may be the result of a recent lithospheric vertical kinematic of this STEP fault, due to the rollback and lateral migration of the Calabrian slab eastward.

Evolution of the broadly rifted zone in southern Ethiopia through gravitational collapse and extension of dynamic topography

The Broadly Rifted Zone (BRZ) is a ~315km wide zone of extension in southern Ethiopia. It is located between the Southern Main Ethiopian Rift and the Eastern Branch of the East African Rift System (EARS) represented by the Kenya-Turkana Rift. The BRZ is characterized by NE-trending ridges and valleys superimposed on regionally uplifted (~2km average elevation) terrain. Previous studies proposed that the BRZ is an overlap zone resulted from northward propagation of the Kenya-Turkana Rift and southward propagation of the Southern Main Ethiopian Rift. To understand the relationship between the BRZ's extensional style and its crustal and upper mantle structures, this work first estimated the Moho depth using the two-dimensional (2D) radially-averaged power spectral analysis of the World Gravity Map. Verification of these results was accomplished through lithospheric-scale 2D forward gravity models along E-W profiles. This work found that the Moho topography beneath the BRZ depicts a dome-like shape with a minimum depth of ~27km in the center of the dome. This work proposes that the Moho doming, crustal arching underlying the BRZ and associated topographic uplift are the result of asthenospheric mantle upwelling beneath the BRZ. This upwelling changed to a NE-directed lateral mantle flow at shallower depth. This is supported by seismic tomography imaging which shows slow S-wave velocity anomaly at lithospheric depth of 75km to 150km stretching in a NE-SW direction from beneath the BRZ to the Afar Depression. This work proposes that the asthenospheric upwelling created gravitationally unstable dynamic topography that triggered extensional gravitational collapse leading to the formation of the BRZ as a wide rift within the narrow rift segments of the EARS.

Crustal structure of the Southwest Subbasin, South China Sea, from wide-angle seismic tomography and seismic reflection imaging

The Southwest Subbasin (SWSB) is an abyssal subbasin in the South China Sea (SCS), with many debates on its neotectonic process and crustal structure. Using two-dimensional seismic tomography in the SWSB, we derived a detailed P-wave velocity model of the basin area and the northern margin. The entire profile is approximately 311-km-long and consists of twelve oceanic bottom seismometers (OBSs). The average thickness of the crust beneath the basin is 5.3 km, and the Moho interface is relatively flat (10–12 km). No high velocity bodies are observed, and only two thin high-velocity structures (~7.3 km/s) in the layer 3 are identified beneath the northern continent-ocean transition (COT) and the extinct spreading center. By analyzing the P-wave velocity model, we believe that the crust of the basin is a typical oceanic crust. Combined with the high resolution multi-channel seismic profile (MCS), we conclude that the profile shows asymmetric structural characteristics in the basin area. The continental margin also shows asymmetric crust between the north and south sides, which may be related to the large scale detachment fault that has developed in the southern margin. The magma supply decreased as the expansion of the SWSB from the east to the west.

Petrology and geochemistry of Cenozoic intra-plate basalts in east-central China: Constraints on recycling of an oceanic slab in the source region

Cenozoic mafic rocks in Jiangsu and Anhui Provinces, east-central China are chiefly basanites and alkali olivine basalts with subordinate tholeiites, which were erupted in three stages; Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary. The rocks become increasingly alkaline as they become younger. On a primitive mantle-normalized multi-element plot, these lavas exhibit typical OIB-like trace element patterns, including enrichment in most incompatible elements (LILE and HFSE) and negative K and Pb anomalies. The compositions of the mafic rocks indicate that they were derived from a mantle source mainly containing clinopyroxene and garnet, most probably a mixture of pyroxenite/eclogite and peridotite. A mineral equilibrium projection shows that all the mafic magmas were produced at pressures of 3–4GPa, implying an asthenospheric origin. Their positive Ba and Sr anomalies and relatively high 87Sr/86Sr ratios suggest derivation from an EM1-type mantle source. However, poor correlations between 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd indicate an isotopically heterogeneous source for the magmas, including DMM, EM1 and EM2, representing mantle peridotite, recycled ancient oceanic crust and seafloor sedimentary rocks, respectively. Variable correlations between 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd ratios, CaO–MgO contents and Eu/Eu* and Ce/Ce* anomalies with rock type imply that marine sediments (plus variable amounts of oceanic crust) and peridotites were the dominant source lithologies of the basanites, whereas recycled oceanic crust (pyroxenite/eclogite) was the main source of the weakly alkaline basalts. This hypothesis is supported by seismic tomographic images of the mantle beneath the region, which show the presence of a stagnant subducted slab in the mantle transition zone. Thus, we propose a petrological model in which a hybrid magma column originated from the mantle transition zone and assimilated some of the overlying peridotite during upwelling, to become the parental magmas of these mafic rocks. This process may relate to the documented lithospheric thinning in East China in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.

The role of crystallized magma and crustal fluids in intraplate seismic activity in Talala region (Saurashtra), Western India: An insight from local earthquake tomography

The Talala region in Saurashtra, Western India is one of the seismically active intraplate regions on the Earth. In recent past, this region has been site of moderate magnitude earthquakes as well as swarm-type earthquake activities. To understand the processes of earthquake generation in this intraplate setting, we constrained the earthquake distribution pattern along with the crustal seismic P-wave velocity (Vp) and Vp/Vs variations, using local earthquakes data. We inverted 2470 P- and 2230 S-wave arrival times from 550 earthquakes which were recorded over 11 seismic stations during 2007 to 2012. The earthquakes distribution shows that the seismicity is following ~NNE–SSW trend, extending for a distance of ~25km and up to 15km in depth. The seismic tomographic images show that the swarm-type earthquake activities at shallower depths are mostly in the zone of lower Vp and lower Vp/Vs. Whereas, the moderate magnitude earthquakes are occurring in a ~NW trending zone of higher Vp and higher Vp/Vs, possibly indicating a zone of crystallized mafic magma, which was transported from deeper Earth. This zone represents a pronounced heterogeneity and provides locale for stress accumulation in this region. After 2001 Bhuj earthquake (Mw 7.7), due to stress perturbation the ~NNE–SSW trending fault got activated and caused bigger earthquakes in this region. Moreover, the crystallized mafic magma is possibly feeding fluids at shallower depths for causing the swarm-type earthquake activities in this region.

A consistent model for fluid distribution, viscosity distribution, and flow‐thermal structure in subduction zone

AbstractWater plays crucial roles in the subduction zone dynamics affecting the thermal‐flow structure through the fluid processes. We aim to understand what controls the dynamics and construct a model to solve consistently fluid generation, fluid transport, its reaction with the solid and resultant viscosity, and thermal‐flow structure. We highlight the effect of mechanical weakening of rocks associated with hydration. The viscosity of serpentinite (ηserp) in subduction zones critically controls the flow‐thermal structure via extent of mechanical coupling between the subducting slab and overlying mantle wedge. When ηserp is greater than 1021 Pa s, the thermal‐flow structure reaches a steady state beneath the volcanic zone, and the melting region expands until Cin (initial water content in the subducting oceanic crust) reaches 3 wt %, and it does not expand from 3 wt %. On the other hand, when ηserp is less than 1019 Pa s, the greater water dependence of viscosity (expressed by a larger fv) confines a hot material to a narrower channel intruding into the wedge corner from a deeper part of the back‐arc region. Consequently, the overall heat flux becomes less for a larger fv. When ageba (age of back‐arc basin as a rifted lithosphere) = 7.5 Ma, the increase in fv weakens but shifts the melting region toward the trench side because of the narrow channel flow intruding into the wedge corner, where as it shuts down melting when ageba=20 Ma. Several model cases (particularly those with ηserp=1020 to 1021 Pa s and a relatively large fv for Cin=2 to 3 wt %) broadly account for the observations in the Northeast Japan arc (i.e., location and width of volcanic chain, extent of serpentinite, surface heat flow, and seismic tomography), although the large variability of surface heat flow and seismic tomographic images does not allow us to constrain the parameter range tightly.

Setting the table for an old plate

Geophysics New pictures of Earth's interior reveal an ancient tectonic plate sinking toward the bottom of the mantle. Simmons et al. find the structure in seismic tomography images under the data-limited region of the Indian Ocean. Complete subduction of the plate occurred more than 100 million years ago. This observation suggests that old plates can hang around in the mantle longer than previously thought. It also provides a new piece of information for reconstructing plate motions and landmass locations in the distant past. Geophys. Rev. Lett. 10.1002/2015GL066237 (2015).

Recent craton growth by slab stacking beneath Wyoming

Seismic tomography images high-velocity mantle beneath the Wyoming craton extending to >250 km depth. Although xenoliths and isostatic arguments suggest that this mantle is depleted of basaltic component, it is not typical craton: its NE elongate shape extends SW of the Wyoming craton; xenoliths suggest that the base of Archean mantle was truncated from ∼180–200 to ∼140–150 km depth since the Devonian, and that the deeper mantle is younger than ∼200 Ma. The Sevier–Laramide orogeny is the only significant Phanerozoic tectonic event to have affected the region, and presumably caused the truncation. Apparently, the base of the Wyoming craton was removed and young, depleted mantle was emplaced beneath the Wyoming craton during the Sevier–Laramide orogeny. We suggest that the Wyoming craton experienced a ∼75 Ma phase of growth through a three-stage process. First, flat-slab subduction removed 40–50 km off the base of the Archean Wyoming craton. This was followed by emplacement of basalt-depleted ocean plateau mantle lithosphere of the Shatsky Rise conjugate, which arrived in the early Laramide. The geologic recorded of vertical motion in the Wyoming region suggests that the plateau's crust escaped into the Earth's interior at 70–75 Ma. Initiation of Colorado Mineral Belt magmatism at this time may represent a slab rupture through which the ocean crust escaped.

The geophysical signatures of the West African Craton

This paper examines existing and newly compiled geophysical representations of the West African Craton (WAC) in terms of its large-scale tectonic architecture. In order to build an interpretation with a significant depth extent we draw upon a range of geophysical data, principally seismic tomographic inversions, receiver functions, gravity and magnetics. We present these results as a series of layers providing a series of depth slices though the cratonic lithosphere. The different geophysical methods suggest partitioning of the WAC into two tectonic elements at the largest scale which is observed in both seismic tomographic images, lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary (LAB) models and long wavelength gravity signals. The different models of the Moho, or crust-mantle boundary, based on these gravity or seismic datasets show little or no correlation, either for short or long-wavelength features, and show little correlation with new receiver function inferred crustal thickness estimates. Manual interpretation of low-wavelength gravity and magnetic data suggest a possible continuation of the WAC across the western margin of the modern boundary, and also highlight distinct domains interpreted to be of Birimian age.

The impacts of mantle phase transitions and the iron spin crossover in ferropericlase on convective mixing—is the evidence for compositional convection definitive? New results from a Yin‐Yang overset grid‐based control volume model

AbstractHigh‐resolution seismic tomographic images from several subduction zones provide evidence for the inhibition of the downwelling of subducting slabs at the level of the 660 km depth seismic discontinuity. Furthermore, the inference of old (~140 Myr) sinking slabs below fossil subduction zones in the lower mantle has yet to be explained. We employ a control volume methodology to develop a new anelastically compressible model of three‐dimensional thermal convection in the “mantle” of a terrestrial planet that fully incorporates the influence of large variations in material properties. The model also incorporates the influence of (1) multiple solid‐solid pressure‐induced phase transitions, (2) transformational superplasticity at 660 km depth, and (3) the high spin‐low spin iron spin transition in ferropericlase at midmantle pressures. The message passing interface‐parallelized code is successfully tested against previously published benchmark results. The high‐resolution control volume models exhibit the same degree of radial layering as previously shown to be characteristic of otherwise identical 2‐D axisymmetric spherical models. The layering is enhanced by the presence of moderate transformational superplasticity, and in the presence of the spin crossover in ferropericlase, stagnation of cold downwellings occurs in the range of spin crossover depths (~1700 km). Although this electronic spin transition has been suggested to be invisible seismically, recent high‐pressure ab initio calculations suggest it to have a clear signature in body wave velocities which could provide an isochemical explanation of a seismological signature involving the onset of decorrelation between Vp and Vs that has come to be interpreted as requiring compositional layering.

Outcrops and well logs as a practicum for calibrating the accuracy of traveltime tomograms

We have developed two case studies demonstrating the use of high-resolution seismic tomography and reflection imaging in the field of paleoseismology. The first study, of the Washington fault in southern Utah, USA, evaluated the subsurface deposits in the hanging wall of the normal fault. The second study, of the Mercur fault in the eastern Great Basin of Utah, USA, helped to establish borehole locations for sampling subsurface colluvial deposits buried deeper than those previously trenched along the fault zone. We evaluated the seismic data interpretations by comparison with data obtained by trenching and logging deposits across the Washington fault, and by drill-core sampling and video logging of boreholes penetrating imaged deposits along the Mercur fault. The seismic tomograms provided critical information on colluvial wedges and faults but lacked sufficient detail to resolve individual paleoearthquakes.

Recycling of oceanic crust from a stagnant slab in the mantle transition zone: Evidence from Cenozoic continental basalts in Zhejiang Province, SE China

Cenozoic continental basalts from Zhejiang Province, southeast China are tholeiitic to weakly alkalic in composition, with moderate MgO contents (6–11wt.%) and an average Mg# of 62. They display typical OIB-like trace element features, including enrichment in most incompatible elements, both LILE and LREE, and negative K, Pb, Zr, Hf anomalies. In particular, they are characterized by high Fe/Mn (73±5), La/Yb (19±6) and Nb/Ta (18.8±0.4) ratios, which can be attributed to the presence of residual clinopyroxene, garnet and rutile in the mantle source. Based on these minerals, the following hybrid source rocks are hypothesized: garnet pyroxenite/eclogite and peridotite. Clinopyroxene–liquid thermobarometry indicates clinopyroxene crystallization temperatures of >1257°C. This is higher than the assumed temperature at the base of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) (~1220°C) beneath Zhejiang, thus the magmas were presumably derived from the asthenosphere. Some typical geochemical features such as negative K, Pb anomalies, positive Ba, Sr, Nb, Ta anomalies and the extremely high Os isotopic signatures, suggest participation of EM-like mantle sources, indicative of ancient subducted oceanic crust. (87Sr/86Sr)i (0.7037–0.7046) and 143Nd/144Nd (0.512832–0.512990) isotope ratios point to the presence of mixed components in the source region, i.e., DMM, EM1 and EM2. Recent seismic tomographic images of the mantle beneath Zhejiang suggest the presence of a subducted slab of oceanic lithosphere in the transition zone. Based on the combined geophysical and geochemical evidence, we propose that the major source of the Zhejiang basaltic magmas was the ancient subducted oceanic slab in the transition zone with an EM-like signature. The other magma sources include depleted asthenospheric peridotite possessing a DMM-like signature. The dynamics of this upwelling hybrid magma was apparently related to westward subduction of the Pacific plate underneath the eastern Asian continent. This process may have triggered the widespread Cenozoic volcanism related to the lithospheric thinning in East China in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.

Degradation of the mechanical properties imaged by seismic tomography during an EGS creation at The Geysers (California) and geomechanical modeling

Using coupled thermal-hydro-mechanical (THM) modeling, we evaluated new seismic tomography results associated with stimulation injection at an EGS demonstration project at the Northwest Geysers geothermal steam field, California. We studied high resolution seismic tomography images built from data recorded during three time periods: a period of two months prior to injection and during two consecutive one month periods after injection started in October 2011. Our analysis shows that seismic velocity decreases in areas of most intense induced microseismicity and this is also correlated with the spatial distribution of calculated steam pressure changes. A detailed analysis showed that shear wave velocity decreases with pressure in areas where pressure is sufficiently high to cause shear reactivation of pre-existing fractures. The analysis also indicates that cooling in a liquid zone around the injection well contributes to reduced shear wave velocity. A trend of reducing compressional wave velocity with fluid pressure was also found, but at pressures much above the pressure required for shear reactivation. We attribute the reduction in shear wave velocity to softening in the rock mass shear modulus associated with shear dislocations and associated changes in fracture surface properties. Also, as the rock mass become more fractured and more deformable this favors reservoir expansion caused by the pressure increase, and so the fracture porosity increases leading to a decrease in bulk density, a decrease in Young modulus and finally a decrease in Vp.