Segmental Duplications Research Articles

Chromosome breakage-replication/fusion enables rapid DNA amplification.

DNA rearrangements are thought to arise from two classes of processes. The first class involves DNA breakage and fusion ("cut-and-paste") without net DNA gain or loss. The second class involves aberrant DNA replication ("copy-and-paste") and can produce either net DNA gain or loss. We previously demonstrated that the partitioning of chromosomes into aberrant structures of the nucleus, micronuclei or chromosome bridges, can generate cut-and-paste rearrangements by chromosome fragmentation and ligation. Surprisingly, in the progeny clones of single cells that have undergone chromosome bridge breakage, we identified large segmental duplications and short sequence insertions that are commonly attributed to copy-and-paste processes. Here, we demonstrate that both large duplications and short insertions are inherent outcomes of the replication and fusion of unligated DNA ends, a process we term breakage-replication/fusion (B-R/F). We propose that B-R/F provides a unifying explanation for complex rearrangement patterns including chromothripsis and chromoanasynthesis and enables rapid DNA amplification after chromosome fragmentation.

Genome-Wide Identification, Expression, and Protein Analysis of CKX and IPT Gene Families in Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) Reveal Their Involvement in Clubroot Resistance.

Cytokinins (CKs) are a group of phytohormones that are involved in plant growth, development, and disease resistance. The isopentenyl transferase (IPT) and cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) families comprise key enzymes controlling CK biosynthesis and degradation. However, an integrated analysis of these two gene families in radish has not yet been explored. In this study, 13 RsIPT and 12 RsCKX genes were identified and characterized, most of which had four copies in Brassica napus and two copies in radish and other diploid Brassica species. Promoter analysis indicated that the genes contained at least one phytohormone or defense and stress responsiveness cis-acting element. RsIPTs and RsCKXs were expanded through segmental duplication. Moreover, strong purifying selection drove the evolution of the two gene families. The expression of the RsIPT and RsCKX genes distinctly showed diversity in different tissues and developmental stages of the root. Expression profiling showed that RsCKX1-1/1-2/1-3 was significantly upregulated in club-resistant materials during primary infection, suggesting their vital function in clubroot resistance. The interaction network of CKX proteins with similar 3D structures also reflected the important role of RsCKX genes in disease resistance. This study provides a foundation for further functional study on the IPT and CKX genes for clubroot resistance improvement in Raphanus.

7p22.3 microdeletion: a case study of a patient with congenital heart defect, neurodevelopmental delay and epilepsy

BackgroundChromosome 7 has regions enriched with low copy repeats (LCRs), which increase the likelihood of chromosomal microdeletion disorders. Documented microdeletion disorders on chromosome 7 include both well-known Williams syndrome and more rare cases. It is noteworthy that most cases of various microdeletions are characterized by phenotypic signs of neuropsychological developmental disorders, which, however, have a different genetic origin. The localization of the microdeletions, the genes included in the region, as well as the structural features of the sequences of these genes have a cumulative influence on the phenotypic characteristics of the individuals for each specific case and the severity of the manifestations of disorders. The consideration of these features and their detailed analysis is important for a correct and comprehensive assessment of the disease.ResultsThe article describes a clinical case of 7p22.3 microdeletion in a patient with congenital heart defect and neurological abnormalities - epilepsy, combined with moderate mental and motor developmental delay.ConclusionsThrough detailed genetic analyses, we are improving the clinical description of the rare 7p22.3 microdeletion and thus creating a basis for future genetic counseling and research into targeted therapies.

Identifying potential anthocyanin biosynthesis regulator in Chinese cherry by comprehensive genome-wide characterization of the R2R3-MYB transcription factor gene family

BackgroundChinese cherry [Cerasus pseudocerasus (Lindl.) G.Don] (syn. Prunus pseudocerasus Lindl.) is an economically important fruiting cherry species with a diverse range of attractive colors, spanning from the lightest yellow to the darkest black purple. However, the MYB transcription factors involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis underlying fruit color variation in Chinese cherry remain unknown.ResultsIn this study, we characterized the R2R3-MYB gene family of Chinese cherry by genome-wide identification and compared it with those of 10 Rosaceae relatives and Arabidopsis thaliana. A total of 1490 R2R3-MYBs were classified into 43 subfamilies, which included 29 subfamilies containing both Rosaceae MYBs and AtMYBs. One subfamily (S45) contained only Rosaceae MYBs, while three subfamilies (S12, S75, and S77) contained only AtMYBs. The variation in gene numbers within identical subfamilies among different species and the absence of certain subfamilies in some species indicated the species-specific expansion within MYB gene family in Chinese cherry and its relatives. Segmental and tandem duplication events primarily contributed to the expansion of Chinese cherry R2R3-CpMYBs. The duplicated gene pairs underwent purifying selection during evolution after duplication events. Phylogenetic relationships and transcript profiling revealed that CpMYB10 and CpMYB4 are involved in the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in Chinese cherry fruits. Expression patterns, transient overexpression and VIGS results confirmed that CpMYB10 promotes anthocyanin accumulation in the fruit skin, while CpMYB4 acts as a repressor, inhibiting anthocyanin biosynthesis of Chinese cherry.ConclusionsThis study provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of R2R3-MYB gene family in Chinese cherry and Rosaceae relatives, and identifies two regulators, CpMYB10 and CpMYB4, involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in Chinese cherry. These results help to develop and utilize the potential functions of anthocyanins in Chinese cherry.

Identification and expression analysis of CCCH gene family and screening of key low temperature stress response gene CbuC3H24 and CbuC3H58 in Catalpa bungei

Catalpa bungei, a tree indigenous to China, is renowned for its superior timber quality and as an ornamental in horticulture. To promote the cultivation of C. bungei in cold regions and expand its distribution, enhancing its cold tolerance is essential. The CCCH gene family is widely involved in plant growth, development, and expression under stress conditions, including low-temperature stress. However, a comprehensive identification and analysis of these genes have not yet been conducted. This study aims to identify key cold-tolerance-related genes within the CCCH gene family of C. bungei, providing the necessary theoretical support for its expansion in cold regions. In this study, 61 CCCH genes within C. bungei were identified and characterized. Phylogenetic assessment divided these genes into 9 subfamilies, with 55 members mapped across 16 chromosomes. The analysis of gene structures and protein motifs indicated that members within the same subfamily shared similar exon/intron distribution and motif patterns, supporting the phylogenetic classification. Collinearity analysis suggested that segmental duplications have played a significant role in the expansion of the C. bungei CCCH gene family. Notably, RNA sequencing analysis under 4 °C cold stress conditions identified CbuC3H24 and CbuC3H58 as exhibiting the most significant responses, highlighting their importance within the CCCH zinc finger family in response to cold stress. The findings of this study lay a theoretical foundation for further exploring the mechanisms of cold tolerance in C. bungei, providing crucial insights for its cultivation in cold regions.

The Phenotypic Spectrum of 16p11.2 Recurrent Chromosomal Rearrangements.

The human 16p11.2 chromosomal region is rich in segmental duplications which mediate the formation of recurrent CNVs. CNVs affecting the 16p11.2 region are associated with an increased risk for developing neuropsychiatric disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), schizophrenia, and intellectual disability (ID), as well as abnormal body weight and head circumference and dysmorphic features, with marked phenotypic variability and reduced penetrance. CNVs affecting the 16p11.2 region mainly affect a distal interval of ~220 Kb, between Breakpoints 2 and 3 (BP2-BP3), and a proximal interval of ~593 Kb (BP4-BP5). Here, we report on 15 patients with recurrent 16p11.2 rearrangements that were identified among a cohort of 1600 patients (0.9%) with neurodevelopmental disorders. A total of 13 deletions and two duplications were identified, of which eight deletions included the proximal 16p11.2 region (BP4-BP5) and five included the distal 16p11.2 region (BP2-BP3). Of the two duplications that were identified, one affected the proximal and one the distal 16p11.2 region; however, both patients had additional CNVs contributing to phenotypic severity. The features observed and their severity varied greatly, even between patients within the same family. This article aims to further delineate the clinical spectrum of patients with 16p11.2 recurrent rearrangements in order to aid the counselling of patients and their families.

Exploring unsolved cases of lissencephaly spectrum: integrating exome and genome sequencing for higher diagnostic yield.

Lissencephaly is a rare brain malformation characterized by abnormal neuronal migration during cortical development. In this study, we performed a comprehensive genetic analysis using next-generation sequencing in 12 unsolved Japanese lissencephaly patients, in whom PAFAH1B1, DCX, TUBA1A, and ARX variants were excluded using the Sanger method. Exome sequencing (ES) was conducted on these 12 patients, identifying pathogenic variants in CEP85L, DYNC1H1, LAMC3, and DCX in four patients. Next, we performed genome sequencing (GS) on eight unsolved patients, and structural variants in PAFAH1B1, including an inversion and microdeletions involving several exons, were detected in three patients. Notably, these microdeletions in PAFAH1B1 could not to be detected by copy number variation (CNV) detection tools based on the depth of coverage methods using ES data. The density of repeat sequences, including Alu sequences or segmental duplications, which increase the susceptibility to structural variations, is very high in some lissencephaly spectrum genes (PAFAH1B1, TUBA1A, DYNC1H1). These missing CNVs were due to the limitations of detecting repeat sequences in ES-based CNV detection tools. Our study suggests that a combined approach integrating ES with GS can contribute to a higher diagnostic yield and a better understanding of the genetic landscape of the lissencephaly spectrum.

Genome-Wide Identification of Caffeic Acid O-Methyltransferase Gene Family in Medicago truncatula: MtCOMT13-Mediated Salt and Drought Tolerance Enhancement

Legumes are important grains and forages, providing high-quality proteins, vitamins, and micronutrients to humans and animals. Medicago truncatula is a close relative of alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT), a key gene that is identified to be essential for melatonin synthesis, plays a significant role in plant growth, development, and abiotic stress responses. However, a systematic study on the COMT gene family in M. truncatula has still not been reported. In this study, 63 MtCOMT genes were identified and categorized into three groups. Gene structure and conserved motif analyses revealed the relative conservation of closely clustered MtCOMTs within each group. Duplicated events in MtCOMT members were identified, and segmental duplication was the main mean. Cis-acting element prediction revealed the involvement of MtCOMTs in growth and development and response to light, stress, and plant hormones. RNA-seq data analysis showed that 57 MtCOMTs varied under salt and drought stresses. The RT-qPCR expression patterns showed that MtCOMT9, MtCOMT13, MtCOMT22, MtCOMT24, MtCOMT43, and MtCOMT46 were related to salt and drought responses in M. truncatula. Additionally, Arabidopsis thaliana overexpressing MtCOMT13 displayed superior plant growth phenotypes and enhanced tolerance to salt and drought stresses through higher photosynthetic parameters and activities of antioxidant enzymes, which indicated that MtCOMT13 played an important role in positively regulating plant salt and drought tolerance. These findings contribute to an improved understanding of MtCOMTs’ roles in abiotic stress responses in M. truncatula, providing an important theoretical basis and genetic resource for legume species resistance breeding in the future.

Independent expansion, selection and hypervariability of the TBC1D3 gene family in humans.

TBC1D3 is a primate-specific gene family that has expanded in the human lineage and has been implicated in neuronal progenitor proliferation and expansion of the frontal cortex. The gene family and its expression have been challenging to investigate because it is embedded in high-identity and highly variable segmental duplications. We sequenced and assembled the gene family using long-read sequencing data from 34 humans and 11 non-human primate species. Our analysis shows that this particular gene family has independently duplicated in at least five primate lineages, and the duplicated loci are enriched at sites of large-scale chromosomal rearrangements on Chromosome 17. We find that all human copy number variation maps to two distinct clusters located at Chromosome 17q12 and that humans are highly structurally variable at this locus, differing by as many as 20 copies and ~1 Mbp in length depending on haplotypes. We also show evidence of positive selection, as well as a significant change in the predicted human TBC1D3 protein sequence. Lastly, we find that, despite multiple duplications, human TBC1D3 expression is limited to a subset of copies and, most notably, from a single paralog group: TBC1D3-CDKL These observations may help explain why a gene potentially important in cortical development can be so variable in the human population.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of the COL Gene Family in Hemerocallis citrina Baroni.

Hemerocallis citrina Baroni (H. citrina) is an important specialty vegetable that is not only edible and medicinal but also has ornamental value. However, much remains unknown about the regulatory mechanisms associated with the growth, development, and flowering rhythm of this plant. CO, as a core regulatory factor in the photoperiod pathway, coordinates light and circadian clock inputs to transmit flowering signals. We identified 18 COL genes (HcCOL1-HcCOL18) in the H. citrina cultivar 'Mengzihua' and studied their chromosomal distribution, phylogenetic relationships, gene and protein structures, collinearity, and expression levels in the floral organs at four developmental stages. The results indicate that these genes can be classified into three groups based on phylogenetic analysis. The major expansion of the HcCOL gene family occurred via segmental duplication, and the Ka/Ks ratio indicated that the COL genes of Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa, Phalaenopsis equestris, and H. citrina were under purifying selection. Many cis-elements, including light response elements, abiotic stress elements, and plant hormone-inducible elements, were distributed in the promoter sequences of the HcCOL genes. Expression analysis of HcCOL genes at four floral developmental stages revealed that most of the HcCOL genes were expressed in floral organs and might be involved in the growth, development, and senescence of the floral organs of H. citrina. This study lays a foundation for the further elucidation of the function of the HcCOL gene in H. citrina and provides a theoretical basis for the molecular design breeding of H. citrina.

Prenatal diagnosis and genetic counseling of a de novo 10q11.21q11.23 duplication associated with a normal phenotype.

Copy number variants (CNVs) are an important source of normal and pathogenic genome variations. Unbalanced chromosome abnormalities are either gains or losses of large genomic regions that do not or only minimally clinically affect the individual. Noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) is widely used in the screening of common fetal chromosome aneuploidy. One example is the duplication of 10q11.21q11.23, which includes the 10q11.2 region. This region contains a complex set of low-copy repeats that may lead to various genomic alterations through non-allelic homologous recombination. In this report, we present a case of a de novo 10q11.21q11.23 duplication with a normal phenotype. This case may be helpful for prenatal diagnosis and genetic counseling. A combination of NIPT, prenatal ultrasound, karyotype analysis, copy number variation sequencing, and genetic counseling is helpful for the prenatal diagnosis of CNVs.

Characterization, evolution, and abiotic stress responses of leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinases (LRR-RLK) in Liriodendron chinense

BackgroundLiriodendron chinense is susceptible to extinction due to the increasing severity of abiotic stresses resulting from global climate change, consequently impacting its growth, development, and geographic distribution. However, the L. chinense remains pivotal in both socio-economic and ecological realms. The LRR-RLK (leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase) genes, constituting a substantial cluster of receptor-like kinases in plants, are crucial for plant growth and stress regulation and are unexplored in the L. chinense.Result233 LchiLRR-RLK genes were discovered, unevenly distributed across 17 chromosomes and 24 contigs. Among these, 67 pairs of paralogous genes demonstrated gene linkages, facilitating the expansion of the LchiLRR-RLK gene family through tandem (35.82%) and segmental (64.18%) duplications. The synonymous and nonsynonymous ratios showed that the LchiLRR-RLK genes underwent a purifying or stabilizing selection during evolution. Investigations in the conserved domain and protein structures revealed that the LchiLRR-RLKs are highly conserved, carrying conserved protein kinase and leucine-rich repeat-like domians that promote clustering in different groups implicating gene evolutionary conservation. A deeper analysis of LchiLRR-RLK full protein sequences phylogeny showed 13 groups with a common ancestor protein. Interspecies gene collinearity showed more orthologous gene pairs between L. chinense and P. trichocarpa, suggesting various similar biological functions between the two plant species. Analysis of the functional roles of the LchiLRR-RLK genes using the qPCR demonstrated that they are involved in cold, heat, and salt stress regulation, especially, members of subgroups VIII, III, and Xa.ConclusionConclusively, the LRR-RLK genes are conserved in L. chinense and function to regulate the temperature and salt stresses, and this research provides new insights into understanding LchiLRR-RLK genes and their regulatory effects in abiotic stresses.

Genome-wide identification and expression analysis of the U-box E3 ubiquitin ligase gene family related to bacterial wilt resistance in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) and eggplant (Solanum melongena L.).

The E3 enzyme in the UPS pathway is a crucial factor for inhibiting substrate specificity. In Solanaceae, the U-box E3 ubiquitin ligase has a complex relationship with plant growth and development, and plays a pivotal role in responding to various biotic and abiotic stresses. The analysis of the U-box gene family in Solanaceae and its expression profile under different stresses holds significant implications. A total of 116 tobacco NtU-boxs and 56 eggplant SmU-boxs were identified based on their respective genome sequences. Phylogenetic analysis of U-box genes in tobacco, eggplant, tomato, Arabidopsis, pepper, and potato revealed five distinct subgroups (I-V). Gene structure and protein motifs analysis found a high degree of conservation in both exon/intron organization and protein motifs among tobacco and eggplant U-box genes especially the members within the same subfamily. A total of 15 pairs of segmental duplication and 1 gene pair of tandem duplication were identified in tobacco based on the analysis of gene duplication events, while 10 pairs of segmental duplication in eggplant. It is speculated that segmental duplication events are the primary driver for the expansion of the U-box gene family in both tobacco and eggplant. The promoters of NtU-box and SmU-box genes contained cis-regulatory elements associated with cellular development, phytohormones, environment stress, and photoresponsive elements. Transcriptomic data analysis shows that the expression levels of the tobacco and eggplant U-box genes in different tissues and various abiotic stress conditions. Using cultivar Hongda of tobacco and cultivar Yanzhi of eggplant as materials, qRT-PCR analysis has revealed that 15 selected NtU-box genes and 8 SmU-box may play important roles in response to pathogen Ras invasion both in tobacco and eggplant.

Genome-wide identification of the EIN3/EIL gene family in Ginkgo biloba and functional study of a GbEIL in the ethylene signaling pathway

ETHYLENE-INSENSITIVE3 (EIN3) or EIN3-Like (EIL) proteins, play critical roles in integrating ethylene signaling and physiological regulation in plants by modulating the expression of various downstream genes, such as ethylene-response factors (ERFs). However, little is known about the characteristics of EIN3/EILs in the gymnosperm Ginkgo biloba. In the present study, a genome-wide comparative analysis of Ginkgo EIN3/EIL gene family was performed with those from an array of species, including bryophytes (Physcomitrella patens), gymnosperms (Cycas panzhihuaensis), and angiosperms (Arabidopsis thaliana, Gossypium raimondii, Gossypium hirsutum, Oryza sativa, and Brachypodium distachyon). Within the constructed phylogenetic tree for the 53 EIN3/EILs identified, 5 GbEILs from G. biloba, 2 PpEILs from P. patens, and 3 CpEILs from C. panzhihuaensis were assigned to one cluster, suggesting that their derivation occurred after the split of their ancestors and angiosperms. Although considerable divergence accumulated in amino acid sequences along with the evolutionary process, the specific EIN3_DNA-binding domains were evolutionarily conserved among the 53 EIN3/EILs. Collinearity analysis indicated that whole-genome or segmental duplication and subsequent purifying selection might have prompted the generation and evolution of EIN3/EIL multigene families. Based on the expression patterns of five GbEILs at the four developmental stages of Ginkgo ovules, one GbEIL gene (Gb_03292) was further investigated for its role in mediating ethylene signaling. The functional activity of Gb_03292 was closely related to ethylene signaling, as it complemented the triple response via ectopic expression in ein3eil1 double mutant Arabidopsis. Additionally, GbEIL likely modulates the expression of a Ginkgo ERF (Gb_15517) by directly binding to its promoter. These results demonstrated that the GbEIL gene could have participated in mediating ethylene signal transduction during ovule development in G. biloba. The present study also provides insights into the conservation of ethylene signaling across the gymnosperm G. biloba and angiosperm species.

Strategic targeting of Cas9 nickase induces large segmental duplications

Gene/segmental duplications play crucial roles in genome evolution and variation. Here, we introduce paired nicking-induced amplification (PNAmp) for their experimental induction. PNAmp strategically places two Cas9 nickases upstream and downstream of a replication origin on opposite strands. This configuration directs the sister replication forks initiated from the origin to break at the nicks, generating a pair of one-ended double-strand breaks. If homologous sequences flank the two break sites, then end resection converts them to single-stranded DNAs that readily anneal to drive duplication of the region bounded by the homologous sequences. PNAmp induces duplication of segments as large as ∼1 Mb with efficiencies exceeding 10% in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Furthermore, appropriate splint DNAs allow PNAmp to duplicate/multiplicate even segments not bounded by homologous sequences. We also provide evidence for PNAmp in mammalian cells. Therefore, PNAmp provides a prototype method to induce structural variations by manipulating replication fork progression.

Characterization and stress-responsive regulation of CmPHT1 genes involved in phosphate uptake and transport in Melon (Cucumis melo L.)

BackgroundPhosphorus (P) deficiency, a major nutrient stress, greatly hinders plant growth. Phosphate (Pi) uptake in plant roots relies on PHT1 family transporters. However, melon (Cucumis melo L.) lacks comprehensive identification and characterization of PHT1 genes, particularly their response patterns under diverse stresses.ResultsThis study identified and analyzed seven putative CmPHT1 genes on chromosomes 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 using the melon genome. Phylogenetic analysis revealed shared motifs, domain compositions, and evolutionary relationships among genes with close histories. Exon number varied from 1 to 3. Collinearity analysis suggested segmental and tandem duplications as the primary mechanisms for CmPHT1 gene family expansion. CmPHT1;4 and CmPHT1;5 emerged as a tandemly duplicated pair. Analysis of cis-elements in CmPHT1 promoters identified 14 functional categories, including putative PHR1-binding sites (P1BS) in CmPHT1;4, CmPHT1;6, and CmPHT1;7. We identified that three WRKY transcription factors regulated CmPHT1;5 expression by binding to its W-box element. Notably, CmPHT1 promoters harbored cis-elements responsive to hormones and abiotic factors. Different stresses regulated CmPHT1 expression differently, suggesting that the adjusted expression patterns might contribute to plant adaptation.ConclusionsThis study unveils the characteristics, evolutionary diversity, and stress responsiveness of CmPHT1 genes in melon. These findings lay the foundation for in-depth investigations into their functional mechanisms in Cucurbitaceae crops.

Resolving the 22q11.2 deletion using CTLR-Seq reveals chromosomal rearrangement mechanisms and individual variance in breakpoints

We developed a generally applicable method, CRISPR/Cas9-targeted long-read sequencing (CTLR-Seq), to resolve, haplotype-specifically, the large and complex regions in the human genome that had been previously impenetrable to sequencing analysis, such as large segmental duplications (SegDups) and their associated genome rearrangements. CTLR-Seq combines in vitro Cas9-mediated cutting of the genome and pulse-field gel electrophoresis to isolate intact large (i.e., up to 2,000 kb) genomic regions that encompass previously unresolvable genomic sequences. These targets are then sequenced (amplification-free) at high on-target coverage using long-read sequencing, allowing for their complete sequence assembly. We applied CTLR-Seq to the SegDup-mediated rearrangements that constitute the boundaries of, and give rise to, the 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS), the most common human microdeletion disorder. We then performed de novo assembly to resolve, at base-pair resolution, the full sequence rearrangements and exact chromosomal breakpoints of 22q11.2DS (including all common subtypes). Across multiple patients, we found a high degree of variability for both the rearranged SegDup sequences and the exact chromosomal breakpoint locations, which coincide with various transposons within the 22q11.2 SegDups, suggesting that 22q11DS can be driven by transposon-mediated genome recombination. Guided by CTLR-Seq results from two 22q11DS patients, we performed three-dimensional chromosomal folding analysis for the 22q11.2 SegDups from patient-derived neurons and astrocytes and found chromosome interactions anchored within the SegDups to be both cell type-specific and patient-specific. Lastly, we demonstrated that CTLR-Seq enables cell-type specific analysis of DNA methylation patterns within the deletion haplotype of 22q11DS.

Genome-wide identification, phylogenetic, structural and functional evolution of thecore components of ABA signaling in plant species: a focus on rice.

A genome-wide analysis had identified 642 ABA core component genes from 20 plant species, which were further categorized into three distinct subfamilies. The gene structures and evolutionary relationships of these genes had been characterized. PP2C_1, PP2C_2, and SnRK2_1 had emerged as key players in mediating the ABA signaling transduction pathway, specifically in rice, in response to abiotic stresses. The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) is essential for growth, development, and stress response, relying on its core components, pyrabactin resistance, pyrabactin resistance-like, and the regulatory component of ABA receptor (PYR/PYL/RCAR), 2C protein phosphatase (PP2C), sucrose non-fermenting-1-related protein kinase 2 (SnRK2). However, there's a lack of research on their structural evolution and functional differentiation across plants. Our study analyzed the phylogenetic, gene structure, homology, and duplication evolution of this complex in 20 plant species. We found conserved patterns in copy number and homology across subfamilies. Segmental and tandem duplications drove the evolution of these genes, while whole-genome duplication (WGD) expanded PYR/PYL/RCAR and PP2C subfamilies, enhancing environmental adaptation. In rice and Arabidopsis, the PYR/PYL/RCAR, PP2C, and SnRK2 genes showed distinct tissue-specific expression and responded to various stresses. Notably, PP2C_1 and PP2C_2 interacted with SnRK2_1 and were crucial for ABA signaling in rice. These findings offered new insights into ABA signaling evolution, interactions, and integration in green plants, benefiting future research in agriculture, evolutionary biology, ecology, and environmental science.

Genome-wide re-identification of the CrRLK1L family in soybean and functional characterization of GmCrRLK1L2 in salt stress response

The Catharanthus roseus receptor-like kinase 1-like (CrRLK1L), a member of the plant receptor-like kinase family, plays crucial roles in plant development and stress response. Despite previous screenings of soybean CrRLK1Ls, their specific function in stress response remains unclear. Utilizing recent soybean whole genome sequencing data, a comprehensive genome-wide analysis was performed to identify CrRLK1Ls in soybean. This study identified 45 CrRLK1L members in soybean, with CrRLK1L2 singled out for further functional investigation. Phylogenetic analysis categorized GmCrRLK1L genes into six classes, some of which exhibited homologs in Arabidopsis. Gene structure and motif analysis revealed a predominance of intron-lacking and relatively conserved GmCrRLK1L genes, with conserved motif patterns across members. Collinearity analysis indicated that both gene tandem and segmental duplication events drove the expansion of the GmCrRLK1L gene family, with segmental duplications being the primary driver. Expression profiling under salt treatment revealed significant up or downregulation of several GmCrRLK1L genes. Overexpression of GmCrRLK1L2 in soybean resulted in reduced plant height and salt tolerance, while knockout did not affect salt tolerance, suggesting potential genetic compensations by other genes. RNA-seq data showed that GmCrRLK1L2 overexpression influenced the expression of metabolic pathways and salt stress-responsive genes, including ACS3, ACO1, PER64, PER53, SAT3, and BCAT2. These findings lay the groundwork for elucidating the biological roles of GmCrRLK1Ls in soybean growth, development, and response to salinity stress.

A systematic analysis of GASA family members in the Salix matsudana genome: Characterization, expression profile, and putative function in antioxidation

The gibberellic acid stimulated Arabidopsis (GASA) gene family, specific to plants, plays a pivotal role in growth, development, and response to diverse environmental stresses. Despite their importance, GASA genes in willow trees have been little studied. Here, 35 SmGASAs were identified from the Salix matsudana genome, which exhibited similar physical and chemical proprieties to GASAs in other species. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that GASAs from Populus trichocarpa, Vitis vinifera, Nicotiana tabacum, Oryza sativa, Arabidopsis thaliana, and S. matsudana are categorized into three distinct subfamilies. It appeared that polyploidization and segmental duplication have contributed to the expansion and diversification of the SmGASA family. These genes were significantly enriched in response to GA and oxygen-containing compounds. The diverse expression patterns observed across willow varieties suggested functional variation of SmGASAs throughout their evolutionary history. The expression profiles of SmGASAs were further analyzed in response to different treatments (i.e., salt, submergence, and polyethylene glycol (PEG)), indicating a potential role for SmGASAs in adapting to these stressors in willows. Remarkably, SmGASAs were shown to detoxify hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), highlighting their potent antioxidant properties. Overall, the comprehensive genomic analysis of willow SmGASAs shed light on their role in stress responses, offering valuable insights for future research and supporting the hypothesis of their involvement in stress adaptation mechanisms.