Seed Supply System Research Articles

Examining the Role of Collective Action in an Informal Seed System: A Case Study from the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico

This paper explores social arrangements associated with seed transactions among small-scale maize farmers in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico, where no formal seed supply system exists. We test the hypothesis that individual farmers have strong incentives to participate in some form of collective action to ensure their access to seed. Six communities were studied, three of them in detail, using in-depth, semistructured interviews with key informants; focus group discussions; and a tracer study that followed seed flows among farmers. Farmers mostly saved seed and only occasionally acquired seed from outside sources. We found no evidence of a specialized social organization based on collective action to mediate seed flows. Seed transactions are infrequent, bilateral, and ad hoc, although trust is an important component, as it ensures reliable information about the seed is provided. Implications of these findings are discussed, especially for genetic diversity if the current supply system breaks down.

Policy Changes to Improve Vegetable Production and Seed Supply in Hararghe, Eastern Ethiopia

Abstract A shift from a cereal-based production system to a cereal-khat [Chata edulis (Vahl) Forsk. ex Endl.]-vegetable based system isoccurring in the Hararghe region in eastern Ethiopia, a food-deficit region. Several reasons contribute to the food-insecurity that includes high population pressure, fragmentation of holdings, recurrent low-moisture stress, use of crop production technologies that are incompatible with the rainfall regime, weak research-extension-farmer linkage, and an unfavorable market structure. The shift by producers to changing farming circumstances was to improve agricultural performance and their livelihoods. The methodology employed was to produce vegetables, but this strategy is constrained by lack of adequate quality seed. This study was conducted to investigate the seed related constraints to vegetable production, and to suggest alternative approaches to overcome problems. Constraints in vegetable marketing as related to seed supply were assessed and mechanisms that could bring about improvements were also suggested. Inclusion of high value vegetable crops into the smallholder production system brought about an increased integration of the system into a market economy. It also enhanced the system's resilience, but producers are still seed insecure. The vegetable market structure better favors middlemen and traders more than producers. Attempts to provide relief food and emergency seed aid and developmental seed initiatives have been made by different government and non-government organizations. Emergency food and seed handouts, although at times indispensable, fostered a dependency mentality, undermined initiatives and innovation among the smallholder producers, and established a dependence on aid as part of the agricultural system. Developmental seed initiatives, with the potential to support farmers' welfare, were not successful or sustainable for various reasons. It is necessary that alternative methods for seed production and distribution be developed. The elements of failure of earlier community-based seed production programs were analyzed, and a different approach to organizing a sustainable community seed production scheme suggested. A Cooperative Community-Based Seed Enterprise (CCBSE) that blends the strengths of the local and formal seed supply systems, and that considers lessons learned from past attempts was suggested and its relevance demonstrated. It is argued that future seed projects should capitalize on developmental seed initiatives, and must be able to discourage the dependency mentality brought about by repeated emergency seed assistance. If not altered, such emergency seed assistance would also have a negative implication on thedevelopment of local CCBSE.

Collective action for the conservation of on-farm genetic diversity in a center of crop diversity: An assessment of the role of traditional farmers' networks

This project explored the possible role of collective action among small-scale farmers in managing and maintaining genetic resources in a center of crop diversity. It focused on the local institutions that ensure the supply of seed of diverse maize landraces to small-scale farmers in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico. The key hypothesis was that the medium-to-long-term supply of a diverse set of varieties to any individual small-scale maize farmer depends on an agreement among a group of farmers to manage and supply the seed of these landraces to each other, if the need arises, and that this constitutes a form of collective action. Six communities were studied, three of them in-depth. Methodologies used included in-depth semi-structured interviews with key informants, focus group discussions, and a tracer study—following the flows of seed among different farmers. The results show that, while there is a well-developed local seed supply system based on sets of social relationships and involving multiple types of transactions, there is no evidence of collective action. Most farmers rely on and prefer to select and save seed from their own harvests. There are seed flows, however, and most seed transactions take place among people with social links, but not within a well-defined group. There are no specialized suppliers of seed, either individuals or groups. Most transactions are bilateral and while the most common transaction is the sale and purchase of seed, this is not done for profit but out of a sense of moral obligation. The system is based on the creation of trust, which is needed because seed is not transparent—that is, it is not possible to fully predict the plant phenotype that may result from a given seed simply by looking at the seed. Farmers demand different types of maize and they believe that there is a strong genotype-by-environment interaction, hence “foreign” maize types may not be appropriate for them. At the same time, farmers also find occasional experimentation beneficial and believe that they can slowly modify the characteristics of “foreign” landraces. In this system, there are strong incentives to be conservative, but also to try new landraces and experiment. The local seed system of these farmers is resilient but able to innovate as well. Interventions to support the conservation of landraces on farm, based on specialized networks for seed that rely on collective action, may not work.. Author's Abstract

Seed supply system for vegetable production at smallholder farms in SouthWestern Nigeria

To characterise the local seed system and assess the potentials of the vegetable seed sector, a seed survey was conducted in five villages within three states of South Western Nigeria. Using structured questionnaires, 94 farmers from five farm settlement locations covering Ogun, Osun and Oyo states of Nigeria were randomly queried on types of varieties that they propagate, their seed sources, and factors that determined their seed choices. The data collected were subjected to descriptive analysis of simple proportions and percentages. At all the locations, the use of seeds of improved varieties for production of vegetable crops in terms of hectares cultivated was predominant over that of local varieties – 100% use of seeds of improved varieties in many cases. About 60% of vegetable farmers sourced seeds from their previously saved harvests, while about 30% purchased seeds from dealers over the 3 years covered by the survey. About 33% of vegetable farmers would select seeds of varieties to cultivate based on high potential crop yield and 32% based on consumer preferences, while 25% of farmers would select seeds of a variety if only it is readily available. The results showed that farmers’ demand for the seeds of improved varieties could be elicited with availability of varieties that meet production challenges (high yields) and market needs (consumer preferences). The implications of the results with respect to prospects for commercial vegetable breeding and seed production were discussed. But indications are that the seed system can be improved when crop breeders and seed producers regularly evaluate the dynamics of consumer quality preferences and continuously generate varieties that satisfy them.

Potential Impact of Privatization on Seed Supply for Small Farmers in Developing Countries

Traditionally, farmers saved seed themselves and relied on their own experience to select and improve their varieties. It was by this means that we obtained the landraces and other varieties, which scientists used to begin the systematic improvement of crops.When new varieties of crops were produced for farmers in developing countries, there was a need to establish a diffusion channel so these improved varieties could pass quickly from research stations to farmers. Since no system of this kind existed in most of these countries, seed projects were established during the 1970s and 1980s to provide this delivery system. These projects were externally financed and were implemented through Ministries of Agriculture or other official organizations, but always closely linked to government policy. Their objectives were mostly social and developmental, but not commercial, and as a result these state seed organizations were heavily subsidized.Since the 1990s, policies of economic liberalization have been introduced in many countries. This has direct application to the seed sector in which “privatization” could be applied to existing enterprises and foreign companies that could also enter the seed market. The justification for this change is the efficiency of the private sector which must organize its activities on a self-financing basis and therefore without any cost to the government or taxpayer. That is an attractive solution when so many governments suffer serious budgetary constraints.This paper discusses the implications of this policy both generally, and with particular relevance to small farmers, most of whom often cultivate less profitable crops and live in rural areas. A commercially-oriented seed “industry” may bring more varieties into the market place and may establish stronger links with customers. There may also be benefits of price competition, especially in the more productive areas where farmers are part of the cash economy. However, for the less attractive crops and areas, there is much evidence that the existing private sector may not become involved, because there is little prospect of a profitable business there.It is therefore necessary to consider how the policy of privatization can be interpreted so as to benefit these farmers and to provide good quality seed at moderate cost. Only by keeping overhead costs, and especially transport, to a minimum can this be achieved. This would suggest a need for more locally-based companies serving a limited area. The author concludes that the challenge is to promote a more diverse seed supply system, which provides a secure delivery channel for new varieties but is also responsive to the real needs of farmers. It remains the task of governments to devise policies, which will encourage this process.

Balancing public and private sector roles in an effective seed supply system

A seed supply system can be defined in general terms as that combination of components, processes and their organisation, along with the interactions and support involved in the production and marketing of seeds of one or more species to a particular user–client grouping in an ongoing way. Seed supply systems come in a variety of forms, and operate at a range of levels (national, regional and local) and with different plant materials used for different purposes. In all cases, however, the public and the private sectors have complementary roles in ensuring that there is an effective seed supply system, which can meet consumer needs in terms of the range of plant materials available and the quantities and quality of seed required at an affordable price. Nationally, it is the government that sets the policy framework within which seed supply systems must operate, and also provides some supporting infrastructure. The private sector then is responsible for the timely and cost-effective production and delivery of seed to end users/clients within the policy framework that has been set by government. The balance in terms of public–private sector roles and responsibilities differs from place to place and changes over time. This paper discusses the factors that help shape what is an effective seed supply system under a particular set of circumstances, but one that may not necessarily be as effective in other countries/regions or with a different product mix. It also considers the forces that lead to a gradual evolution of the system over time and to recent and more radical changes in major developed countries. The latter shift has been brought about by the commercial opportunities presented by genetic engineering and legal protection of the intellectual property (IP) in new plant varieties, coupled with a shift in government policy towards deregulation of the economy (and so greater industry self-regulation in areas like quality assurance). These factors have led to far-reaching structural changes in relation to commercial seed production and delivery in the developed world over the past decade. The recent changes in seed supply arrangements were focused initially on high volume arable food crops in the larger developed economies of North America and western Europe. However, they are now gradually moving through to lower volume seed markets and to smaller, less developed economies where they will have different implications for the development of effective country-specific seed supply policies.

Seed Policy, Legislation and Law

Abstract Seed is a major technology transfer vehicle and the efficiency of seed supply systems to cater for the needs of different types of farmers is an issue in agricultural development policies. At the same time, seed is a (potential) commercial product and it is the carrier of valuable genetic resources. Seed policies have concentrated on the commercialisation aspects. More recently, however, the development value of seed for resource-poor farmers and the policies for in-situ conservation of plant genetic resources have created a more diverse interest in seed supply, especially farmers' seed systems and participatory approaches in breeding and seed provision. This creates the need to involve in the seed policy debate, not only conventional seed specialists, but also environmental specialists, (small) business development specialists and social scientists. The governments may take three different positions in the regulation of seed supply chains: competition, cooperation, control. In addition to domest...

Planting Materials Seed Systems of Finger Millet, Rice and Taro in Jumla, Kaski and Bara Districts of Nepal

Formal and informal seed supply systems of rice (Jumla, Bara and Kaski), finger millet and taro(Kaski) were studied in three ecosites of Nepal during 1999-2001 to understand the processes ofseed flow, seed production, seed selection and storage systems. A survey was conducted at 48 to96 households. Informal seed supply was the only system in Jumla and Kaski and formal systemexisted only in Bara. The main sources of seed were farmer's own saved seed (67-91%), seedfrom neighbors and relatives. Exchange of germplasm was the main basis of fulfillment fromother sources. All farmers obtained seed from their own village, while farmers introducedmaterials occasionally from outside village. Most of the farmers followed seed selection beforeor after crop harvest. Rice field selection and plant selection based on a fixed set of criteria wasthe common practice. Non lodged plants with more grain per panicle, bold grains, well-maturedand uniform plants, long panicle, true to type, good looking grains, free from diseases andinsects were the main rice seed selection criteria. All farmers from both sites stored rice seeds bylocal methods in the locally available containers. Mor and Mudkothi are the special strawcontainers to store rice seed in Bara. Dhara is a special mud structure used to store rice seeds inJumla. Finger millet seed supply system was mostly similar to that of rice seed system. Ninetyone percent farmers saved seed for their own use; however, many of them changed finger milletseeds lots or varieties regularly for their particular plot. Ears selection during harvest by setcriteria for seed purpose was the common practice. Farmers stored finger millet seed carefully insmall locally available containers and tried their best to maintain the quality of seed duringdifferent stage of seed production. Taro has diverse planting materials: cormels, corms witheyes, suckers and corm with small cormels. Taro planting materials management is totallyinformal and almost 89% farmers saved these materials for their use and replaced them mostlyafter 3 years. Farmers had fixed criteria of corms and cormels selection for planting purpose andfocus and more on disease free. Storage of planting materials was locally by using localmaterials and methods. Understanding of seed system in various crops helps to developconservation strategy.Key words: Seed flow; seed production; seed selection; seed storage; seed systemDOI: 10.3126/narj.v6i0.3343Nepal Agriculture Research Journal Vol.6 2005 pp.39-48