Watershed Sediment Yield Research Articles

CALCULATION OF SEDIMENT YIELD USING THE INTERO MODEL IN THE S1-3 WATERSHED OF THE SHIRINDAREH RIVER BASIN, IRAN

UDK 631.459(55 Shirin-Dareh Basin)
 Soil erosion is a natural process caused generally by the force of water (running water and raindrops) or wind. The process involves not only the detachment of soil particles (on- site), but also their transfer and deposition elsewhere in the river basin and out of the catchment (off-site). The assessment of soil erosion may be performed using and analyzing measurements data (sediment discharge series and soil erosion measurements) or applying various analytical models. It is well known fact that the measurements results are available only in a few experimental catchments in most of the countries all over the World and as a consequence the researchers are frequently using the analytical models. For calculation of the Sediment yield in the S1-3 Watershed of Iran we used the IntErO model (Spalevic, 2011) based on EPM method (Gavrilovic, 1972). Calculated peak discharge from the S1-3 Watershed was 87 m3s-1 for the incidence of 100 years and the net soil loss was 5,574 m³km-², specific 194 m³ km-² per year. Taking into consideration the results of this study and previous experiences of the other researchers, it was concluded that the IntErO Model may be applied to the other regions similar to Shirindareh basin for calculation of sediment yield and identification of critical areas in watersheds.

Sediment yield and sources in dam-controlled watersheds on the northern Loess Plateau

An improved understanding of the temporal variations in soil erosion rates and sediment sources is necessary to identify the main areas prone to soil erosion and to effectively implement soil and water conservation measures. In this study, we selected two dam-controlled watersheds (Xiaoshilata and Yangjiagou) on the northern Loess Plateau, China, and determined the temporal variations in the sediment yield. The sedimentation upstream of the dams showed that there were 31 and 9 flood couplets in the Xiaoshilata (1958–1972) and Yangjiagou watersheds (2007–2011), respectively, which have trapped 16.5×104t and 3.38×104t of sediment, respectively. The estimated specific sediment yield was approximately 173.6t/ha/a and 106.1t/ha/a in the Xiaoshilata and Yangjiagou watersheds, respectively. A multivariate mixed model was applied to identify the different sediment sources. The results indicated that weathered sandstone contributed approximately 61.52% of the total sediment, and the remaining sediment loss was from bare loess soil (32.54%) and grassland (5.94%) in the Xiaoshilata watershed. In the Yangjiagou watershed, approximately 66.8% of the sediment originated from weathered sandstone, whereas bare loess and grassland accounted for 17.5% and 15.7% of the sediment yield, respectively. Based on these findings, we recommend that comprehensive soil conservation measures are needed to soil erosion control for the permanent steep gullies due to high sediment contribution. The sedimentation behind the check dams provides an indirect method for estimating the sediment yield in ungauged basins.

Assessing sediment yield in Kalaya gauged watershed (Northern Morocco) using GIS and SWAT model

An efficient design for erosion-control structures of any watershed in the world is entrusted with the delicate forecasting of sediment yields. These outlook yields are usually inferred by extrapolations from past observations. Because runoff, as the transporting vehicle, is more closely correlated with sediment yields than any other variable. So, calibration as well as validation of process-based hydrological models are two major processes while estimating the sediment yield in watershed. The actual survey is fulfilled with the aim of developing a trustworthy hydrologic model simulating stream flow discharge and sediment concentration with least uncertainty among the parameters picked out for calibration so as to verify the effect of the scenarios on the spatial distribution of sediment yield (sediments transported from sub-basins to the main channel during the step of time). Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT, version 2012) model integrated with Geographic Information System (GIS, version 10.1) was used to simulate the stream flow and sediment concentration of Kalaya catchment situated in north of Morocco for the period from 1971 to 1993. Model calibration and validation were performed for monthly time periods using Sequential Uncertainty Fitting 2 (SUFI-2, version 2) within SWAT-CUP using 16 parameters. Our calibration outputs for monthly simulation for the period from 1976 to 1984 showed a good model performance for flow rates with NSE and PBIAS values of 0.76 and −11.80, respectively; also a good model performance for sediment concentration with NSE and PBIAS values of 0.69 and 7.12, respectively. Nonetheless, during validation period (1985–1993) for monthly time step, the NSE and PBIAS values were 0.67 and −14.44, respectively for flow rates and these statistical values were 0.70 and 15.51, respectively for sediment concentration; which also means a good model performance for both. Following calibration, the inclusive effect of each parameter used was ranked using global sensitivity function in SWAT-CUP. From our analysis, the effective hydraulic conductivity in main channel alluvium (CH_K2), USLE support practice factor (USLE_P) and manning's "n" value for the main channel (CH_N2) were found to be the most sensitive parameters during different iterations with different number of simulation but with the same inputs. The least sensitive parameter were found to be different in either cases unlike the most sensitive parameters. As a result, the global evaluated soil erosion rate in the study area varied from 20 to 120t/ha/yr. It was summarized that the entire knowledge of the hydrologic processes happens within the watershed and the consciousness about acceptable meaningful range of the parameters is crucial while developing reliable hydrologic model.

Using SWAT Model to Determine Runoff, Sediment Yield and Nitrate Loss in Gorganrood Watershed, Iran

The adequacy of the SWAT model in the estimation of runoff, sediment yield and nitrate loss in the Gorganrood watershed was tested, using the existing spatial database as the primary data. The model was then executed for a 31-years’ time period. In combination with the SWAT model, the Sequential Uncertainty Fitting Program (SWAT-CUP and SUFI-2) was added used to calibrate and validate a hydrologic model of the watershed. The obtained values at 14 stations were between 0.48 to 0.83 for NS and 0.58 to 0.90 for R, respectively. The results showed that nitrate loss was higher in cultivated lands, and in the loess deposits. The maximum amounts of runoff and sediment yield were largely produced in steep areas of the watershed, where dry farming was practiced. In general, the results showed that SWAT could be a proper tool for simulating runoff, sediment yield and nitrate loss into the river.

Application of partial least squares regression and WetSpa model to determine factors controlling sediment yield in Chardavol watershed, Iran

This paper examines the effects of watershed complexity in terms of physiography and land use on the specific sediment yield of the Chardavol watershed (1012.946 km2) in Iran. First, specific sediment yield was simulated using spatially distributed hydrological WetSpa model, then the influential factors such as morphometric variables, land-use composition and pattern and soil properties of the watershed were calculated at the sub-watershed scale. Due to the inter-reliant of these watershed characteristics, a partial least squares regression (PLSR) was used to illustrate the relationship between the specific sediment yield and data of 15 selected watershed characteristics. The results showed that the land-use composition and soil properties had the maximum effects on the specific sediment yield and clarified 79% of the variation in the specific sediment yield. Regarding the availability of digital spatial database over the watershed, this simple PLSR procedure could be applied in different watersheds.

Estimation of Sediment Yield in a Small Urban Ungauged Watershed based on the Schaffernak Approach at Sugutamu Watershed, Ciliwung, West Java

Estimation of Sediment Yield in a Small Urban Ungauged Watershed based on the Schaffernak Approach at Sugutamu Watershed, Ciliwung, West Java

Estimation of Sediment Yield in a Small Urban Ungauged Watershed based on the Schaffernak Approach at Sugutamu Watershed, Ciliwung, West Java

Estimation of Sediment Yield in a Small Urban Ungauged Watershed based on the Schaffernak Approach at Sugutamu Watershed, Ciliwung, West Java

A semi-physical sediment yield model for estimation of suspended sediment in loess region

Sediment yield is a complex function of many environmental factors including climate, hydrology, vegetation, basin topography, soil types, and land cover. We present a new semi-physical watershed sediment yield model for the estimation of suspended sediment in loess region. This model is composed by three modules in slope, gully, and stream phases. For slope sediment yield, a balance equation is established based on the concept of hydraulic erosion capacity and soil erosion resistance capacity. According to the statistical analysis of watershed characteristics, we use an exponential curve to approximately describe the spatial variability of watershed soil erosion resistance capacity. In gully phase, the relationship between gully sediment concentration and flow velocity is established based on the Bagnold׳ stream power function. In the stream phase, we assume a linear dependence of the sediment volume in the reach on the weighted sediment input and output. The proposed sediment yield model is operated in conjunction with a conceptual hydrologic model, and is tested over 16 regions including testing grounds, and small, medium and large watersheds in the loess plateau region in the mid-reach of Yellow River. Our results indicate that the model is reasonable in structure and is able to provide a good simulation of sediment generation and transportation processes at both flood event scale and inter-annual time scale. The proposed model is generally applicable to the watersheds with soil texture similar to that of the loess plateau region in the Yellow River basin in China.

Evaluating ephemeral gully erosion impact on Zea mays L. yield and economics using AnnAGNPS

Ephemeral gully erosion causes serious water quality and economic problems in the Midwest United States. A critical barrier to soil conservation practice adoption is often the implementation cost, although it is recognized that erosion reduces farm income. Yet few, if any, understand the relationship between cost of conservation practice implementation and potential economic benefit gained from erosion control practices, especially as related to ephemeral gully erosion. The objectives of this research are to: (1) evaluate the soil loss and corresponding topsoil depth reduction due to annually ephemeral gully filling; and (2) estimate the economic loss associated with the crop production reduction attributed to topsoil thinning. Surface runoff and watershed sediment yield were flume measured at the approximately 1-ha drainage scale in Iowa. Sediment yield of the developing ephemeral gully was partitioned from measured total watershed sediment loss, by modeling ephemeral gully development with the Annualized Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution model (AnnAGNPS), and subtracting this soil loss value from the flume measured watershed total. Topsoil thinning in the adjacent area used to fill the ephemeral gully was calculated based on the corresponding ephemeral gully sediment yield. The effect of A horizon thickness on corn yield obtained from published literature was used to calculate the corn (Zea mays L.) yield reduction due to topsoil thinning. Ephemeral gully erosion negatively impacts farm economics in the long term and implies that soil conservation measures should be carefully designed and well maintained. However, this evidence suggests that costs associated with establishment and use of structures such as grass waterways to minimize or eliminate ephemeral gully formation will not be recuperated in the short term through yield potential maintenance.

Storm-wise Analysis of Hydro-Sedimentary Response of Khamsan Watershed

Sediment yield of watersheds results from different erosional and hydrological processes which make it too complicated to be predicted. Awareness of runoff and sediment yield regimes is useful to better understand the erosional condition of watersheds for management. Therefore, determination of factor s controlling hydro-sedimentary response of watersheds is very necessary. For this purpose, ground surveying and measurements of hydrograph and sediment graph were carried out in the representative bas in of Khamsan in the uplands of Gavshan dam during 9 months. Finally, relationships between runoff and sediment yield were obtained, then corresponding runoff-sediment events were analyzed. Results showed that 5 events out of 6 occurring runoff events had eight-shaped hysteresis loop and only one event showed clock-wise hysteresis loop. Among them, the highest and lowest flood discharge s were attributed to the events of 02.11.2010 and 05.01.2011 with 151488 M 3 and 11764.8 M 3 Run off, respectively. The study also showed that for this watershed no specific type of loop exist ed for a particular season . Accordingly, the seasonal patterns could not be attributed to a particular type of loop. Precipitation and runoff characteristics may have also played a role in addition to other factors. Results emphasize the importance of rainfall distribution and rising -falling limbs of hydrograph for the corresponding hysteresis loops in small watersheds.

Detailed spatial analysis of SWAT-simulated surface runoff and sediment yield in a mountainous watershed in China

In this study, surface runoff and sediment yields, simulated by the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for the Xiangxi catchment, China, are analysed at the spatial level of hydrologic response unit (HRU). This allows for a more precise targeting of best management practices than analysis at the coarser sub-basin level. It also provides the opportunity to validate simulated surface runoff and sediment yield by evaluating the plausibility of their spatial variation within the watershed. The results indicate that satisfactory model performance at a gauge does not guarantee plausible results at HRU level. Both surface runoff and sediment yields were found to vary reasonably with land use and soil types, but not with slope. The credibility of simulated surface runoff was increased by modifying selected SWAT algorithms and parameters. However, these modifications had only a marginal effect on sediment yield, which can be explained by the nonlinear relationship between sediment yield and HRU area in the modified Universal Soil Loss Equation. This study demonstrates that evaluation of model output at HRU level is highly recommended.Editor D. Koutsoyiannis; Guest editor V. Krysanova

Predicting ephemeral gully erosion with RUSLER and EphGEE

Abstract. Ephemeral gully erosion is not included in predictions made with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, version 2 (RUSLE2). A new distributed application called RUSLER (RUSLE2-Raster) predicts distributed soil loss and its output can be linked with the new Ephemeral Gully Erosion Estimator (EphGEE). These models were applied to a 6.3 ha research watershed near Treynor, Iowa, USA, where runoff and sediment yield were measured from 1975 to 1991. Using a 3-m raster DEM, results indicate that ephemeral gully erosion contributed about one-third of the amount of sheet and rill erosion, and that considerable deposition of sediment originating from both sources occurred within the grassed waterway. For ambient conditions, predicted annual average watershed sediment yield was 17.5 Mg ha−1 year−1, 20% greater than the measured value of 14.6 Mg ha−1 year−1.

A modeling approach to evaluate the impact of conservation practices on water and sediment yield in Sasumua Watershed, Kenya

Degradation of agricultural watersheds often reduces their capacity to provide ecosystem services such as sediment retention, flow regulation, and water quality improvement. Soil and water conservation practices can be used to enhance the capacity of watersheds to produce these services. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of agricultural conservation practices on water and sediment yield using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The study area was Sasumua Watershed (107 km2 [43 mi2]), where land degradation has affected watershed9s capacity to regulate flow and maintain water quality. The model was calibrated and validated for streamflow at the watershed outlet. Data on annual average erosion rates for the area was used to constrain soil erodibility factor (KUSLE) and practice erodibility factor (PUSLE) parameters during sediment calibration while measured three month sediment concentration data was used for validation. Model performance was assessed using the coefficient of determination (r2), Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (ENS) and percent bias (PBIAS). Results gave monthly streamflow r2 values of 0.80 and 0.85, ENS values of 0.74 and 0.81, and PBIAS values of ±5% and ±6% during the calibration and validation. The model also satisfactorily simulated daily sediment concentrations with an r2 value of 0.54. However, ENS and PBIAS values were low, which was attributed to the short duration of measurement. The validated model was used to simulate sediment yield for the period 1970 to 2010. Mean annual watershed sediment yield was 40,934 t y−1 (90,243,096 lb yr−1). The impacts of filter strips, contour farming, parallel terraces, grassed waterways, and their combinations on water and sediment yield were simulated by adjusting relevant model parameters. The effectiveness of filter strips increased nonlinearly with width being optimum at 30 m (98.4 ft). A combination of 30 m (98.4 ft) wide filter strips and grassed waterways reduced sediment yield by 80%; parallel terraces, 10 m (32.8 ft) filter strips, and grassed waterways reduced sediment yield by 75%; 10 m (32.8 ft) filter strips and grassed waterways reduced yield by 73%; contour farming and grassed waterways reduced yield by 66%; and grassed waterways reduced yield by only 54%. Parallel terraces reduced surface runoff by 20% and increased base flow by 12%, while contour farming reduced surface runoff by 12% and increased base flow by 6.5%. Implementation of conservation practices can reduce sediment yield and increase water yield marginally. The results give an insight into the implications of the present land use management practices and can be used to devise ecologically sound watershed management and development plans.

Prediction of soil loss differences and sediment accumulation at the Nilufer creek watershed, Turkey, using multiyear satellite data in a GIS

This study integrates the RUSLE, remote sensing and GIS to assess soil loss and identify sensitive areas to soil erosion in the Nilufer creek watershed in Bursa province, Turkey. The annual average soil loss was generated separately for years 1984 and 2011, in order to expose possible soil loss differences occurred in 27 years. In addition, sediment accumulation and sediment yield of the studied watershed was also predicted and discussed. The results indicated that very severe erosion risk areas in 1984 was 13.4% of the area, but it was increased to 15.3% by the year 2011, which needs immediate attention from soil conservation point of view. Furthermore, the estimated annual sediment yield of the Nilufer creek watershed was increased from 903 to 979 Mg km−2 y−1 in 27 years period. The study also provides useful information for decision-makers and planners to take appropriate land management practices in the area.

Impact of weather and climate scenarios on conservation assessment outcomes

Selected watershed studies of the Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) are reviewed and findings are interpreted from the perspective of potential conservation outcomes due to climate change scenarios. Primary foci are runoff, soil erosion, sediment transport, and watershed sediment yield. Highlights, successes, and challenges with regards to climate change impacts on soil erosion, runoff, and watershed sediment yield are presented. The covered information adds to the existing knowledge base of climate change impacts and provides another piece of information that may be useful in the planning and manage- ment of agricultural watersheds; assessment of conservation needs; and development, funding, and implementation of conservation programs. The selected conservation assessment studies include, among others, a thought experiment on the sensitivity of soil erosion, runoff, and sediment yield to changes in rainfall; a computer-based investigation of potential climate change effects on runoff and soil erosion in a southeastern Arizona rangeland; the complex response of northern Mississippi watersheds to runoff variations and channel stabilization measures; the impact of conservation practices and a persistent pluvial period on watershed runoff and sediment yield in Oklahoma; and stream bank erosion during major flooding in Iowa and river corridor management. A study of rainfall-runoff in an north-central Missouri watershed and a curve number analysis in a northern Appalachian experimental watershed are included herein. Findings showed that climate change scenarios of increased precipitation intensity lead to an exponential increase in soil erosion, runoff, and watershed sediment yield, thereby stressing current conservation practices or future practices designed with present day practice standards. This diminishes conservation practice effectiveness and increases sediment supply to the stream network. The sensitive response of the watershed hydrologic system may lead to renewed soil erosion that is large enough to offset the reduction in soil loss achieved by current conservation practices. However, in alluvial-floodplain environments with non- cohesive bed and bank material, watershed sediment yield is controlled by channel discharge and energy slope, neither of which is influenced by traditional in-field conservation practices or channel bank stabilization structures. Thus, control of sediment yield will gradually shift in the downstream direction from sediment supply to sediment transport capacity and blur any existing relation between a climate change signal, in-field conservation outcomes, and sediment yield at watershed outlets. Targeting conservation practices to erosion prone areas, expanding conservation coverage, and adapting agronomic practices may be necessary to prevent excessive soil erosion and downstream sedimentation under climate change scenarios that include intensified precipitation.

Fine sediment sources in Conservation Effects Assessment Project watersheds

Two naturally occurring radionuclides, Beryllium-7 (⁷Be) and Lead-210 (²¹⁰Pb_xs) were used as tracers to discriminate eroded surface soils from channel-derived sediments in the fine suspended sediment loads of eight Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) benchmark watersheds. Soil, bank, and suspended sediment samples, as well as rainfall samples, were collected in the watersheds from single storm events and analyzed for the radionuclide activities, which were then applied to a two end-member mixing model to determine the relative proportions from the two source areas. In larger watersheds where the transport length of the sediment was longer, the suspended sediment load contained lower proportions of eroded upland soils compared to smaller systems. The longer transport paths contained more depositional areas in which fine sediment could settle, and hence, less eroded surface soils reached the stream channel, resulting in higher proportions of sediment from the channels. This study showed that more than 50% of the fine sediment in six of the eight watersheds originated from channel sources that included stream banks, the riverine bed, and gullies. These results underscore the need to consider channel and gully processes when management practices are designed to reduce sediment yield in agricultural watersheds.

Quantitative analysis of factors controlling sediment yield in mountainous watersheds

Sediment and turbidity are primary causes of impaired river ecosystems; remedial action for these impairments requires the identification of their sources and controlling factors. This paper examines the combined effects of watershed complexity in terms of land use and physiography on the specific sediment yield of the upper Du River watershed (8973km2) in China. The land use composition, land use pattern, morphometric variables, and soil properties of the watershed were calculated at the subwatershed scale and considered to be potentially influential factors. Because these watershed characteristics are highly codependent, a partial least-squares regression (PLSR) was used to elucidate the linkages between the specific sediment yield and metrics composed of 19 selected watershed characteristics. The first-order factors were identified by calculating the variable importance for the projection (VIP). The results revealed that the land use composition and land use pattern exerted the largest effects on the specific sediment yield and explained 65.2% of the variation in the specific sediment yield. A set of physiographic indices was also found to have a large effect on the specific sediment yield and explained 17.7% of the observed variation in the specific sediment yield. The following are the dominant first-order factors of the specific sediment yield at the subwatershed scale: the areal percentages of agriculture and forest, patch density, value of the Shannon's diversity index, contagion, value of the hypsometric integral, and saturated soil hydraulic conductivity. The watershed size exerted a substantial effect on the sediment delivery ratio (SDR). The VIP values also suggested that the Shannon's diversity index, contagion, and hypsometric integral are important factors in the SDR. With a readily available digital spatial database and rapid developments in geographic information system (GIS) technology, this practical and simple PLSR approach could be applied to a variety of watersheds.

Application of the WEPP model to determine sources of run-off and sediment in a forested watershed

This study investigates critical run-off and sediment production sources in a forested Kasilian watershed located in northern Iran. The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) watershed model was set up to simulate the run-off and sediment yields. WEPP was calibrated and validated against measured rainfall–run-off–sediment data. Results showed that simulated run-off and sediment yields of the watershed were in agreement with the measured data for the calibration and validation periods. While low and medium values of run-off and sediment yields were adequately simulated by the WEPP model, high run-off and sediment yield values were underestimated. Performance of the model was evaluated as very good and satisfactory during the calibration and validation stages, respectively. Total soil erosion and sediment load of the study watershed during the study period were determined to be 10 108 t yr−1 and 8735 t yr−1, respectively. The northern areas of the watershed with dry farming were identified as the critical erosion prone zones. To prioritize the subwatersheds based on their contribution to the run-off and sediment production at the watershed's main outlet, unit response approach (URA) was applied. In this regard, subwatersheds close to the main outlet were found to have the highest contribution to sediment yield of the whole watershed. Results indicated that depending on the objective of land and water conservation practices, particularly, for controlling sediment yield at the main outlet, critical areas for implementing the best management practices may be identified through conjunctive application of WEPP and URA. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sediment dynamics following active management of a stream buffer zone: A case study

In this case study, change in sediment yield over a one year period was examined on paired watersheds (treated vs. reference) located in east Alabama. The effect of a partial cutting within a stream buffer zone (SBZ) on sediment yield was explored as well as the relative effects of pastoral, forested, and clearcut areas. During the no-harvest (calibration) period, upstream pastoral area generated much more sediment load per unit area than downstream forested sections during rainfall events. A partial cut within an SBZ changed the sediment pattern of downstream sections of the treatment watershed. On the treated sections, the observed sediment yield was higher than expected while there was no significant change in sediment yield from the pastoral area. Some of this increase was attributed to seasonal effects due to reduction in evapotranspiration. There was no change in the sediment yield pattern of the control watershed. The partial cut within the SBZ played a much more critical role than the stream road crossing as the sediment source. This study further shows that a holistic approach is needed to control sediment yield in mixed land use watersheds.

A Method for Spatially Explicit Representation of Sub-watershed Sediment Yield, Southern California, USA

We present here a method to integrate geologic, topographic, and land-cover data in a geographic information system to provide a fine-scale, spatially explicit prediction of sediment yield to support management applications. The method is fundamentally qualitative but can be quantified using preexisting sediment-yield data, where available, to verify predictions using other independent data sets. In the 674-km(2) Sespe Creek watershed of southern California, 30 unique "geomorphic landscape units" (GLUs, defined by relatively homogenous areas of geology, hillslope gradient, and land cover) provide a framework for discriminating relative rates of sediment yield across this landscape. Field observations define three broad groupings of GLUs that are well-associated with types, relative magnitudes, and rates of erosion processes. These relative rates were then quantified using sediment-removal data from nearby debris basins, which allow relatively low-precision but robust calculations of both local and whole-watershed sediment yields, based on the key assumption that minimal sediment storage throughout most of the watershed supports near-equivalency of long-term rates of hillslope sediment production and watershed sediment yield. The accuracy of these calculations can be independently assessed using geologically inferred uplift rates and integrated suspended sediment measurements from mainstem Sespe Creek, which indicate watershed-averaged erosion rates between about 0.6-1.0mmyear(-1) and corresponding sediment yields of about 2×10(3)tkm(-2)year(-1). A spatially explicit representation of sediment production is particularly useful in a region where wildfires, rapid urban development, and the downstream delivery of upstream sediment loads are critical drivers of both geomorphic processes and land-use management.