Sediment Cascade Research Articles

Quantifying sediment connectivity in an actively eroding gully complex, Waipaoa catchment, New Zealand

Using a combination of airborne LiDAR (2005) and terrestrial laser scanning (2007, 2008, 2010, 2011), sediment delivery processes and sediment connectivity in an ~20-ha gully complex, which significantly contributes to the Waipaoa sediment cascade, are quantified over a 6-year period. The acquisition of terrain data from high-resolution surveys of the whole gully-fan system provides new insights into slope processes and slope-channel linkages operating in the complex. Raw terrain data from the airborne and ground-based laser scans were converted into raster DEMs with a vertical accuracy between surveys of <±0.1m. Grid elevations in each successive DEM were subtracted from the previous DEM to provide models of change across the gully and fan complex. In these models deposition equates to positive and erosion to negative vertical change. Debris flows, slumping, and erosion by surface runoff (gullying in the conventional sense) generated on average 95,232m3 of sediment annually, with a standard deviation of ±20,806m3. The volumes of debris eroded from those areas dominated by surface erosion processes were higher than in areas dominated by landslide processes. Over the six-year study period, sediment delivery from the source zones to the fan was a factor of 1.4 times larger than the volume of debris exported from the fan into Te Weraroa Stream. The average annual volume of sediment exported to Te Weraroa Stream varies widely from 23,195 to 102,796m3. Fluctuations in the volume of stored sediment within the fan, rather than external forcing by rainstorms or earthquakes, account for this annual variation. No large rainfall events occurred during the monitoring period; therefore, sediment volumes and transfer processes captured by this study are representative of the background conditions that operate in this geomorphic system.

The Gravitational Process Path (GPP) model (v1.0) – a GIS-based simulation framework for gravitational processes

Abstract. The Gravitational Process Path (GPP) model can be used to simulate the process path and run-out area of gravitational processes based on a digital terrain model (DTM). The conceptual model combines several components (process path, run-out length, sink filling and material deposition) to simulate the movement of a mass point from an initiation site to the deposition area. For each component several modeling approaches are provided, which makes the tool configurable for different processes such as rockfall, debris flows or snow avalanches. The tool can be applied to regional-scale studies such as natural hazard susceptibility mapping but also contains components for scenario-based modeling of single events. Both the modeling approaches and precursor implementations of the tool have proven their applicability in numerous studies, also including geomorphological research questions such as the delineation of sediment cascades or the study of process connectivity. This is the first open-source implementation, completely re-written, extended and improved in many ways. The tool has been committed to the main repository of the System for Automated Geoscientific Analyses (SAGA) and thus will be available with every SAGA release.

Sediment loading of alpine debris-flow channels by snow avalanches, Canadian Rocky Mountains

ABSTRACTMeasurements of sediment deposition by snow avalanches were carried out in five alpine debris-flow channels in the Canadian Rocky Mountains after five or six winters by employing on average 15–29 sampling polygons in each channel. Following the melting of the avalanche snow each summer, the sediment deposited inside each polygon was collected, weighed, and converted to a depth of deposition. The results show that deposition in the channels averages 0.09–0.38 cm a−1, with an overall average of 0.19 cm a−1 for the five channels. Most of this deposition is contributed by weak clastic rocks in the basins but the largest particles are derived from much stronger carbonate rocks. Taking into account the channel area over which the measurements were made and the basin area, the measured sediment depths are equivalent to 8.3–36.4 m3 a−1 of deposition per channel or 10.9–311.7 t km−2 a−1 basin sediment yield. For the five channels, the overall averages are 16.4 m3 a−1 and 95.8 t km−2 a−1, respectively. On average 8–38% of polygons in each channel had no sediment deposition after a winter, reflecting the high spatial variability of avalanche sediment deposition. Comparison of debris-flow volumes and return periods with the measured annual volumes of sediment deposition suggests that avalanches are by themselves incapable of loading these channels for debris flows, and other processes such as rockfall, creep and streamflow also play a role. The most important role of avalanches may be as a hillslope-channel coupling mechanism in the sediment cascade and to assist in debris-flow bulking on the fan.

Stability and instability on Maya Lowlands tropical hillslope soils

Substantial lake core and other evidence shows accelerated soil erosion occurred in the Maya Lowlands of Central America over ancient Maya history from 3000 to 1000years ago. But we have little evidence of the wider network of the sources and sinks of that eroded sediment cascade. This study begins to solve the mystery of missing soil with new research and a synthesis of existing studies of tropical forest soils along slopes in NW Belize. The research aim is to understand soil formation, long-term human impacts on slopes, and slope stability over time, and explore ecological implications. We studied soils on seven slopes in tropical forest areas that have experienced intensive ancient human impacts and those with little ancient impacts. All of our soil catenas, except for one deforested from old growth two years before, contain evidence for about 1000years of stable, tropical forest cover since Maya abandonment. We characterized the physical, chemical, and taxonomic characteristics of soils at crest-shoulder, backslopes, footslopes, and depression locations, analyzing typical soil parameters, chemical elements, and carbon isotopes (δ13C) in dated and undated sequences. Four footslopes or depressions in areas of high ancient occupation preserved evidence of buried, clay-textured soils covered by coarser sediment dating from the Maya Classic period. Three footslopes from areas with scant evidence of ancient occupation had little discernable deposition. These findings add to a growing corpus of soil toposequences with similar facies changes in footslopes and depressions that date to the Maya period. Using major elemental concentrations across a range of catenas, we derived a measure (Ca+Mg)/(Al+Fe+Mn) of the relative contributions of autochthonous and allochthonous materials and the relative age of soil catenas. We found very low ratios in clearly older, buried soils in footslopes and depressions and on slopes that had not undergone ancient Maya erosion. We found high (Ca+Mg)/(Al+Fe+Mn) values on slopes with several lines of evidence that suggest relative youth, soils possibly formed since Maya abandonment. Carbon isotopes (δ13C) also provide some evidence of past vegetation change on slopes. We found strong evidence for maize or other alien C4 species in an ancient terrace soil and additional evidence in buried footslopes but only evidence for C3 species (like tropical trees) on the backslopes and other crest-shoulders. The fact that steep slopes preserved no evidence of C4 species inputs may mean that the ancient Maya maintained forests here. Alternatively, ancient Maya land uses eroded slopes, with the δ13C signatures detected today being the result of more recent soil development under forest over the last millennium. Additional evidence that these soils are recent in age includes elevated (Ca+Mg)/(Al+Fe+Mn) values, skeletal soil profiles, and low soil magnetic susceptibility. Besides the evidence for truncating backslopes and aggrading footslopes, the ancient Maya built agricultural terraces that accumulated soils and altered drainage. All these ancient Maya slope alterations would have influenced modern tree distributions, because many tree species in the modern forest show strong preferences for different soil types and topographic situations that the ancient Maya changed.

Lithium isotopes and implications on chemical weathering in the catchment of Lake Donggi Cona, northeastern Tibetan Plateau

This study presents lithium (Li) isotope ratios (δ7Li) for rocks, sediments, suspended particulate material, and dissolved Li from the Lake Donggi Cona catchment, located on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, China. The average δ7Li=+1.9‰ of the bedrocks is estimated from local loess. δ7Li values decrease progressively within the sediment cascade from loess, to river and lake floor sediments. The lake floor sediments average at −0.7‰. The difference between bedrock and lake sediments reflects the preferential fractionation of dissolved 6Li into clay minerals (mostly illite) in the weathering zone and grain-size sorting during fluvial sediment transport. The δ7Li values of stream and lake water samples range from +13.6 to +20.8‰, whereas thermal waters fall between +5.9 and +11.6‰. The δ7Li values of lake water samples are close to +17‰ and reflect mixing of waters from two perennial inflows and thermal waters. Dissolved Li in streams represents an integrated isotopic signal derived from soil solutions in the weathering zone. An apparent isotopic fractionation of −17.8±1.6‰ (αsec-sol∼0.982) between secondary minerals and solution was determined. An inflow that drains a sub-catchment in the north carries a high proportion of thermal waters. Despite of the high proportion of admixed thermal waters with high Li concentrations and low δ7Li, this stream has the highest δ7Li values of about +21‰. This is consistent with admixing of thermal waters to solutions in the weathering zone and subsequent fractionation by preferential uptake of isotopically light dissolved Li into secondary phases. Based on Li isotope ratios of the dissolved and solid export flux from the weathering zone we calculated that around five times more Li is exported in particles than dissolved in streams. An average δ7Li value of about +17‰ of most streams and the lake is reflecting a low weathering intensity and chemical weathering rate of about 4t/km2/a. Low weathering rates and an erosion dominated weathering system are consistent with moderate precipitations, the cold climate, and the high relief of the study area.

Assessment of structural sediment connectivity within catchments: insights from graph theory

Abstract. To describe the sedimentary signal delivered at catchment outlets, many authors now refer to the concept of connectivity. In this framework, the sedimentary signal is seen as an emergent organization of local links and interactions. The challenge is thus to open the black boxes that remain within a sediment cascade, which requires both accurate geomorphic investigations in the field (reconstruction of sequences of geomorphic evolution, description of sediment pathways) and the development of tools dedicated to sediment cascade modeling. More precisely, the development of tools devoted to the study of connectivity in geomorphology is still in progress, although graph theory offers promising perspectives (Heckmann and Schwanghart, 2013). In this paper, graph theory is applied to abstract the network structure of sediment cascades, keeping only the nodes (sediment sources, sediment stores, outlet) and links (linkage by a transportation agent), represented as vertices and edges. From the description of the assemblages of sedimentary flows, we provide three main indices to explore how small-scale processes may result in significant broad-scale geomorphic patterns. The main hypothesis guiding this work is that the network structure dictates how sediment inputs from various sources interact at tributary junctions and finally at the outlet of a cascading system. First, we use the flow index to assess the potential contribution of each node to the sediment delivery at the outlet. Second, we measure the influence of each node regarding how it is accessible from both sediment sources and the outlet (using the Shimbel index). Third, we propose a new connectivity index named Network Structural Connectivity index (NSC) revealing whether the potential contribution of a node is lower or higher than expected from its location within the network. These indices are first computed for a conceptual sediment cascade network and then applied to a catchment located in the southern French Alps. We demonstrate that this index may be used to simulate sediment transfer and help in identifying the hotspots of geomorphic change. In the present case, we try to predict how a sediment cascade may be impacted by an edge disruption or a reconnection.

The inheritance of a Mesozoic landscape in western Scandinavia

In-situ weathered bedrock, saprolite, is locally found in Scandinavia, where it is commonly thought to represent pre-Pleistocene weathering possibly associated with landscape formation. The age of weathering, however, remains loosely constrained, which has an impact on existing geological and landscape evolution models and morphotectonic correlations. Here we provide new geochronological evidence that some of the low-altitude basement landforms on- and offshore southwestern Scandinavia are a rejuvenated geomorphological relic from Mesozoic times. K-Ar dating of authigenic, syn-weathering illite from saprolitic remnants constrains original basement exposure in the Late Triassic (221.3±7.0–206.2±4.2 Ma) through deep weathering in a warm climate and subsequent partial mobilization of the saprolitic mantle into the overlying sediment cascade system. The data support the bulk geomorphological development of west Scandinavia coastal basement rocks during the Mesozoic and later, long-lasting relative tectonic stability. Pleistocene glaciations played an additional geomorphological role, selectively stripping the landscape from the Mesozoic overburden and carving glacial landforms down to Plio–Pleistocene times. Saprolite K-Ar dating offers unprecedented possibilities to study past weathering and landscape evolution processes.

Speciation and potential long-term behaviour of chromium in urban sediment particulates

PurposeChromium, a potentially harmful element, occurs commonly within the urban sediment cascade as a result of abundant industrial and transport-related sources. The risks that Cr-bearing particles pose to ecosystems and humans depend on the solid-phase chemical speciation of Cr and its environmental mobility. In this study, we adopt an integrated geochemical approach to investigate and determine the long-term fate of Cr in the urban sediment cascade.Materials and methodsWe use bulk chemical digests, sequential chemical extraction analysis, electron microscopy, electron microprobe and microfocus XANES analysis to describe the solid-phase speciation, geochemical characteristics and potential long-term behaviour of Cr in urban particulate matter from both aquatic sediment and road dust sediment (RDS) in Manchester, UK.Results and discussionCr-bearing grains within RDS and aquatic sediment are predominantly iron oxides and alumino-silicate glass grains. Electron microprobe analysis indicates Cr concentrations up to 3300 and 133,400 μg g−1 in the RDS and aquatic grains, respectively. XANES analysis indicates that Cr(III) is the dominant oxidation state, with only trace amounts of Cr(VI). Importantly, Cr speciation does not appear to have changed between sedimentary environments and the dominance of Cr(III) suggests limited bioavailability or toxicity under predominant environmental (anoxic and neutral pH) conditions in the aquatic sediment sink. Furthermore, geochemical analyses suggest the environmental mobility of Cr in the aquatic sediment sink is low (compared to other toxic metals) due to its association mainly with alumino-silicate glass grains and its inclusion as an integral part of the glass structure.ConclusionsIndustrial glass grains are a major component of urban sediment worldwide. The speciation and geochemical investigations performed in this study suggest most Cr within the urban sediment cascade may be resistant to environmental processes that could mobilise other toxic metals.

Tracking multiple sediment cascades at the river network scale identifies controls and emerging patterns of sediment connectivity

AbstractSediment connectivity in fluvial networks results from the transfer of sediment between multiple sources and sinks. Connectivity scales differently between all sources and sinks as a function of distance, source grain size and sediment supply, network topology and topography, and hydrologic forcing. In this paper, we address the challenge of quantifying sediment connectivity and its controls at the network scale. We expand the concept of a single, catchment‐scale sediment cascade toward representing sediment transport from each source as a suite of individual cascading processes. We implement this approach in the herein presented CAtchment Sediment Connectivity And DElivery (CASCADE) modeling framework. In CASCADE, each sediment cascade establishes connectivity between a specific source and its multiple sinks. From a source perspective, the fate of sediment is controlled by its detachment and downstream transport capacity, resulting in a specific trajectory of transfer and deposition. From a sink perspective, the assemblage of incoming cascades defines provenance, sorting, and magnitude of sediment deliveries. At the network scale, this information reveals emerging patterns of connectivity and the location of bottlenecks, where disconnectivity occurs. In this paper, we apply CASCADE to quantitatively analyze the sediment connectivity of a major river system in SE Asia. The approach provides a screening model that can support analyses of large, poorly monitored river systems. We test the sensitivity of CASCADE to various parameters and identify the distribution of energy between the multiple, simultaneously active sediment cascades as key control behind network sediment connectivity. To conclude, CASCADE enables a quantitative, spatially explicit analysis of network sediment connectivity with potential applications in both river science and management.

Landslide-driven erosion and slope–channel coupling in steep, forested terrain, Ruahine Ranges, New Zealand, 1946–2011

Landslides are an important means of conveying sediment from slopes to channels in steepland environments, but landsliding is a discontinuous process. This means that any single assessment in time of their contribution to the sediment cascade is of limited value. To better understand landscape dynamics and the contribution of landslides to slope–channel coupling over time, this paper quantifies connectivity over a time span of 65years in small, steep headwater catchments in the southern Ruahine Range, New Zealand. Temporal variability in landsliding and slope–channel coupling was assessed using six sets of aerial photography flown between 1946 and 2011, from which over 6900 landslides were mapped in ArcGIS, of which up to 78% connected with the stream network. Estimates of the volume of material delivered by landslide erosion to headwater channels were based on ground survey measurements of selected landslide scars and suggest that between 1946 and 2011 over 5millionm3 of sediment was delivered from slopes to channels in the 221km2 study area. Forest cover is not sufficient to prevent this erosion. These catchment systems are particularly vulnerable to high magnitude storm events, which significantly elevate landslide intensity and enhance sediment delivery, as occurred in the mid-1970s. The legacy of these events remains in these headwater channels, with ongoing consequences for stream and hazard management in and adjacent to the ranges.

Discriminating sediment archives and sedimentary processes in the arid endorheic Ejina Basin, NW China using a robust geochemical approach

Geochemical characteristics have been intensively used to assign sediment properties to paleoclimate and provenance. Nonetheless, in particular concerning the arid context, bulk geochemistry of different sediment archives and corresponding process interpretations are hitherto elusive. The Ejina Basin, with its suite of different sediment archives, is known as one of the main sources for the loess accumulation on the Chinese Loess Plateau. In order to understand mechanisms along this supra-regional sediment cascade, it is crucial to decipher the archive characteristics and formation processes. To address these issues, five profiles in different geomorphological contexts were selected. Analyses of X-ray fluorescence and diffraction, grain size, optically stimulated luminescence and radiocarbon dating were performed. Robust factor analysis was applied to reduce the attribute space to the process space of sedimentation history. Five sediment archives from three lithologic units exhibit geochemical characteristics as follows: (i) aeolian sands have high contents of Zr and Hf, whereas only Hf can be regarded as a valuable indicator to discriminate the coarse sand proportion; (ii) sandy loess has high Ca and Sr contents which both exhibit broad correlations with the medium to coarse silt proportions; (iii) lacustrine clays have high contents of felsic, ferromagnesian and mica source elements e.g., K, Fe, Ti, V, and Ni; (iv) fluvial sands have high contents of Mg, Cl and Na which may be enriched in evaporite minerals; (v) alluvial gravels have high contents of Cr which may originate from nearby Cr-rich bedrock. Temporal variations can be illustrated by four robust factors: weathering intensity, silicate-bearing mineral abundance, saline/alkaline magnitude and quasi-constant aeolian input. In summary, the bulk-composition of the late Quaternary sediments in this arid context is governed by the nature of the source terrain, weak chemical weathering, authigenic minerals, aeolian sand input, whereas pedogenesis and diagenesis exert only limited influences. Hence, this study demonstrates a practical geochemical strategy supplemented by grain size and mineralogical data, to discriminate sediment archives and thereafter enhance our ability to offer more intriguing information about the sedimentary processes in the arid central Asia.

Bedload transport in a formerly glaciated mountain catchment constrained by particle tracking

Abstract. In formerly glaciated mountain settings, Pleistocene glaciations are responsible for profound spatial reorganization of the landscape structure. By imposing local channel slope and the degree of hillslope–channel connectivity, glacial macro-forms can exert first-order controls on the downstream strength and continuity of the coarse sediment cascade. To estimate quantitatively these controls we trace bedload transport for 3 years along Strimm Creek, Eastern Italian Alps. Specifically, we monitor the travel distance of 490 PIT-tagged particles (b axis: 23–229 mm; weight: 83–6525 g) at two contrasting sites: Upper Strimm Creek (US; 4 km2), which flows through a fluvially dominated hanging valley, and Lower Strimm Creek (LS; 7.5 km2), located downstream, in a relict glacial trough where it experiences periodic colluvial sediment inputs from lateral tributaries. Tracer positioning within the streambed is periodically tracked in the field with a portable antenna in order to assess progressive travel distances, as well as the extent of the channel active layer, in relation to snowmelt and rainfall-driven peak flows. Interestingly, we show that tracer virtual velocities for selected inter-survey periods are independent of tracer weight at both study sites. Cumulatively, tracers in US have travelled across distances (i.e. inner quartiles) shorter than 2 m, which correspond to over 2 orders of magnitude less than what was observed in LS. These figures translate, after calculations of tracer inter-survey virtual velocities, into estimated bedload volumes equal to about 3 m3 in US and 600 m3 in LS, with most of the transport (75 % in US, and 93 % in LS) occurring during snowmelt. A similar contrast in bedload transport rates, even without considering the additional volumes of material mobilized by mass-wasting processes in LS, testifies the extent to which the glacial imprinting can still affect contemporary sediment transfer, and thus postglacial landscape evolution, in mountain drainage basins.

Integrating field measurements, a geomorphological map and stochastic modelling to estimate the spatially distributed rockfall sediment budget of the Upper Kaunertal, Austrian Central Alps

The estimation of catchment-scale rockfall rates relies on the regionalisation of local measurements. Here, we propose a new framework for such a regionalisation by the example of a case study in the Upper Kaunertal, Austrian Central Alps (62.5km2). Measurements of rockfall deposition during 12months onto six collector nets within the study area were combined with published mean annual rates from the literature, and a probability density function was fitted to these data. A numerical model involving a random walk routing scheme and a one-parameter friction model was used to simulate rockfall trajectories, starting from potential rockfall source areas that were delineated from a digital elevation model. Rockfall rates sampled from the fitted probability density function were assigned to these trajectories in order to model the spatial distribution and to estimate the amount of rockfall deposition. By recording all trajectories as edges of a network of raster cells, and by aggregating the latter to landforms (or landform types) as delineated in a geomorphological map of the study area, rockfall sediment flux from sources to different landforms could be quantified. Specifically, the geomorphic coupling of rockfall sources to storage landforms and the glacial and fluvial sediment cascade was investigated using this network model. The total rockfall contribution to the sediment budget of the Upper Kaunertal is estimated at c. 8000Mgyr−1, 16.5% of which is delivered to the glaciers, and hence to the proglacial zone.The network approach is favourable, for example because multiple scenarios (involving different probability density functions) can be calculated on the basis of the same set of trajectories, and because deposits can be back-linked to their respective sources. While the methodological framework constitutes the main aim of our paper, we also discuss how the estimation of the budget can be improved on the basis of spatially distributed production rates.

The Disconnected Sediment Conveyor Belt: Patterns of Longitudinal and Lateral Erosion and Deposition During a Catastrophic Flood in the Lockyer Valley, South East Queensland, Australia

The sediment (dis)connectivity concept is the water-mediated transfer of sediment between different compartments of a catchment sediment cascade involving four possible dimensions or linkages (longitudinal, lateral, vertical and temporal). Quantifying the strength of these linkages within and between compartments provides a means to understand the internal sediment flux dynamics of a catchment. The aims of this paper are to examine (1) the dynamics of longitudinal and lateral (dis)connectivity by quantifying patterns of erosion and deposition that occurred during a catastrophic flood, and (2) how the patterns of connectivity can be changed through management actions that better utilise floodplain sediment storages. Multi-temporal LiDAR and air photos are used to quantify volumetric change with respect to geomorphic settings and units. The results show that over the length of the trunk stream, the high-magnitude event was net depositional with high longitudinal sediment disconnectivity. At the reach scale, an alternating pattern of high and low longitudinal connectivity associated with contraction and expansion zones was evident. The efficiency of sediment transfer from the uppermost compartment to the most downstream compartment decreased exponentially, while the strength of lateral connectivity increased for each expansion reach. Modelling results show that increasing channel boundary roughness along expansion reaches with riparian revegetation can increase the frequency of lateral connectivity and floodplain sediment storage, thereby decreasing reach-to-reach connectivity and reducing end-of-catchment sediment delivery. This contrasts with the current trend of building levees along the bank tops of expansion reaches, which decrease lateral connectivity and increase reach-to-reach connectivity.

Characterization and quantification of Holocene colluvial and alluvial sediments in the Valdaine Region (southern France)

This study presents a Holocene sediment budget for the Valdaine Region, located at the edge of the southern French Pre-Alps. Holocene colluvial and alluvial deposition are quantified based on existing and new field data. Average sediment thickness values were calculated for different landscape units, and available chronological data were used to make a time-differentiated sediment budget. Total Holocene colluvial deposition in the Valdaine (334 km2) amounts 167 × 106 m3, while alluvial deposition in the Roubion and Jabron catchments (in total 610 km2, including their catchment upstream the Valdaine) amounts 177 × 106 m3. Especially, colluvial deposition is high (0.75 × 106 g/m2) compared with other catchments. Three major deposition periods (8500–2000 bc, 700 bc–ad 800 and ad 1200–2000) and two periods of relative hillslope stability with local fluvial incision (2000–700 bc and ad 800–1200) set the framework for a time-differentiated sediment budget. Results show that depositional phases relate to intense land use and hillslope stability and fluvial incision to land abandonment. Catchment averaged colluvial deposition increases from 13 × 10−6 m3/m2/yr for 8500–2000 bc to 355 × 10−6 m3/m2/yr for ad 1200–2000, while alluvial deposition increases from 16 to 147 × 10−6 m3/m2/yr between the same time periods. A relationship with climatic fluctuations was not found because of the limited temporal resolution of the sediment budget. The derived sediment cascade model shows how alluvial sediments change from fine (silt and clay) to coarse (sand and gravel) after ad 1200. This went along with the establishment of a braided river pattern, indicating that the main source of sediment shifted to the mountainous headwaters. Further research including fingerprinting and modeling would be necessary to further understand the sediment budget and to more accurately quantify the different source areas and the export from the catchment.

Sediment connectivity in the high-alpine valley of Val Müschauns, Swiss National Park — linking geomorphic field mapping with geomorphometric modelling

The efficiency of sediment routing through mountain sediment cascades is controlled by the connectivity of hillslopes to the main river system. A lack of connectivity may cause long-term sediment storage and exclude large fractions of a basin from the sediment routing for several thousand years. Here, we studied sediment dynamics in a small, formerly glaciated valley in the Swiss Alps. To characterise the sediment connectivity to the stream, we calculated a morphometric index using a GIS algorithm. The modelling results were tested against a field based geomorphic mapping of sediment storages, which were evaluated with respect to their state of (de)coupling. In accordance to the field diagnostics, the modelling results indicate very well that the present-day sediment flux is conditioned by the glacial valley morphometry inherited through Pleistocene glaciation. Especially in the upper hanging valleys, the connectivity index is reduced noticeably due to the glacial cirque morphology. Based on the field mapping, 30% of the hillslope sediment cascades are interrupted and 20% of the storage boundaries are currently affected by a lack of material transfer. As a consequence, ~29% of the basin surface is currently disconnected from the main river. Nevertheless, the GIS algorithm overestimates the connectivity within the basin, because it fails to calculate decoupling between neighbouring pixels in digital terrain models (DTMs). Around 35% of the basin surface, which has been mapped in the field as being decoupled, is related to relative high connectivity. Our study highlights the potential of morphometric GIS modelling for studying sediment connectivity, but additionally emphasises the indispensability of geomorphic field mapping for a holistic understanding of mountain cascading systems.

Why so few? Landslides triggered by the 2002 Denali earthquake, Alaska

The 2002 Mw 7.9 Denali Fault earthquake, Alaska, provides an unparalleled opportunity to investigate in quantitative detail the regional hillslope mass-wasting response to strong seismic shaking in glacierized terrain. We present the first detailed inventory of ∼1580 coseismic slope failures, out of which some 20% occurred above large valley glaciers, based on mapping from multi-temporal remote sensing data. We find that the Denali earthquake produced at least one order of magnitude fewer landslides in a much narrower corridor along the fault ruptures than empirical predictions for an M ∼8 earthquake would suggest, despite the availability of sufficiently steep and dissected mountainous topography prone to frequent slope failure. In order to explore potential controls on the reduced extent of regional coseismic landsliding we compare our data with inventories that we compiled for two recent earthquakes in periglacial and formerly glaciated terrain, i.e. at Yushu, Tibet (Mw 6.9, 2010), and Aysén Fjord, Chile (2007 Mw 6.2). Fault movement during these events was, similarly to that of the Denali earthquake, dominated by strike-slip offsets along near-vertical faults. Our comparison returns very similar coseismic landslide patterns that are consistent with the idea that fault type, geometry, and dynamic rupture process rather than widespread glacier cover were among the first-order controls on regional hillslope erosional response in these earthquakes. We conclude that estimating the amount of coseismic hillslope sediment input to the sediment cascade from earthquake magnitude alone remains highly problematic, particularly if glacierized terrain is involved.

Geochemical insights to the formation of “sedimentary buffers”: Considering the role of tributary–trunk stream interactions on catchment-scale sediment flux and drainage network dynamics

The concept of disconnectivity (or decoupling) of sediment movement in river systems is an important concept in analyses of sediment flux in catchments. At the catchment scale, various blockages–termed buffers, barriers and blankets–form along the sediment cascade, interrupting the conveyance of sediments downstream. Long-lived buffers can control aspects of catchment sediment flux for an extended period.The upper Hunter catchment has a highly disconnected sediment cascade. The most highly disconnected subcatchment (Dart Brook) contains a distinct type of buffer, a trapped tributary fill, in its downstream reaches, reducing the effective catchment area of the upper Hunter catchment by ~18%. We test the use of elemental analyses provided by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry of homogenous sediment profiles taken from floodplain bank exposures to determine that the geochemical composition of the sediments that make up this trapped-tributary fill system have been derived from two distinct source areas (the tributary system and the trunk stream). Over at least the Holocene, sedimentation along the axis of the Hunter River valley (the trunk stream) has formed an impediment to sediment conveyance along the lower tributary catchment, essentially “trapping” the tributary. We present an evolutionary model of how this type of “blockage” has formed and discuss implications of tributary–trunk stream (dis)connectivity in analysis of catchment-scale sediment flux and drainage network dynamics. In this case, a relatively large tributary network is having a “geomorphically insignificant” impact on trunk stream dynamics.

A probabilistic sediment cascade model of sediment transfer in the Illgraben

We present a probabilistic sediment cascade model to simulate sediment transfer in a mountain basin (Illgraben, Switzerland) where sediment is produced by hillslope landslides and rockfalls and exported out of the basin by debris flows and floods. The model conceptualizes the fluvial system as a spatially lumped cascade of connected reservoirs representing hillslope and channel storages where sediment goes through cycles of storage and remobilization by surface runoff. The model includes all relevant hydrological processes that lead to runoff formation in an Alpine basin, such as precipitation, snow accumulation, snowmelt, evapotranspiration, and soil water storage. Although the processes of sediment transfer and debris flow generation are described in a simplified manner, the model produces complex sediment discharge behavior which is driven by the availability of sediment and antecedent wetness conditions (system memory) as well as the triggering potential (climatic forcing). The observed probability distribution of debris flow volumes and their seasonality in 2000–2009 are reproduced. The stochasticity of hillslope sediment input is important for reproducing realistic sediment storage variability, although many details of the hillslope landslide triggering procedures are filtered out by the sediment transfer system. The model allows us to explicitly quantify the division into transport and supply-limited sediment discharge events. We show that debris flows may be generated for a wide range of rainfall intensities because of variable antecedent basin wetness and snowmelt contribution to runoff, which helps to understand the limitations of methods based on a single rainfall threshold for debris flow initiation in Alpine basins.

Introduction to the special issue ‘Tracer Applications in Sediment Research’

Introduction to the special issue ‘Tracer Applications in Sediment Research’