Sedentary Smokers Research Articles

Pulmonary Function Changes In Response To Combined Aerobic And Resistance Training In Sedentary Male Smokers

Pulmonary Function Changes In Response To Combined Aerobic And Resistance Training In Sedentary Male Smokers

Effects of upper body resistance training on pulmonary functions in sedentary male smokers

Background:Cigarette smoking is well correlated with lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It is common among men than women in India. In addition, sedentary lifestyle is associated with less efficient pulmonary function. Effectiveness of upper body resistance training (UBRT) in improving pulmonary function is unclear. Keeping all these factors in view, this study aims to examine the effect of UBRT on pulmonary function in male sedentary smokers.Materials and Methods:This study recruited 36 sedentary male smokers, of which 30 were randomized into two groups after fulfilling eligibility criteria-an exercising experimental group (EG) (N=15) or non-exercising control group (CG) (N=15). The EG group were assigned to exercise for 4 weeks, 3 times weekly on non-consecutive days using UBRT program and breathing exercise. In the CG, only breathing exercise was given for 10 min. Both groups were equivalent in baseline characteristics.Results:The improvement in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and FEV1/forced vital capacity (FVC) values were seen significant in EG after 4 weeks of UBRT: from 3.62±0.56 to 3.96±0.51 (P=0.000) and 0.88±0.11 to 0.96±0.13 (P<0.001), respectively. But FVC did not show significant change in the EG (P=0.430). There were no significant changes in FEV1, FVC, and FEV1/FVC values in CG after 4 weeks of intervention. On intergroup comparison, significant difference was found between CG and EG for FEV1 and FEV1/FVC values.Conclusion:Four weeks of UBRT program brought about significant changes in the pulmonary function in male sedentary smokers.

Participation in a population-based physical activity programme as an aid for smoking cessation: a randomised trial

ObjectivesExercise combined with nicotine therapy may help smoking cessation and minimise weight gain after quitting. Low participation in vigorous-intensity physical activity programmes precludes their population-wide applicability. In a randomised controlled...

Exercise Effects on Lipoprotein Lipids in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Sedentary Males Smokers

Epidemiologic studies have found plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels to be predictive of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in adults. To date, research has primarily focused on the secondary and tertiary management of CVD to the neglect of more important and cost-effective primary preventative measures. Although aerobic modes of exercise have been associated with favorable alterations in lipid and lipoprotein levels, the effect of resistance training on lipid and lipoprotein levels as a preventive measure is inconclusive and conflicting especially on the more sensitive lipoprotein indices in at-risk sedentary smokers. PURPOSE: To evaluate and compare the effects of 16 weeks of three times weekly aerobic (Aer), resistance (Res) and combined resistance and aerobic (Com) training on sedentary at-risk male smokers' lipoprotein profiles. METHODS: 50 subjects were randomly assigned into one of four groups; Aer (n = 12); Res (n = 13); Com (n = 13) or a non-exercising control (Con) group (n = 12). Aer subjects utilized a combination of aerobic equipment, Res subjects exercised using eight whole-body exercises, while the Com subjects utilized both endurance and whole-body resistance training in equal proportions. Throughout the experimental period, the Con group received no treatment. RESULTS: The Con was found to have had no significant (P ≤ 0.05) improvements in any measured lipoprotein measures while the Res found a significant improvement only in triglyceride (TG) measures. The Aer and Com found significant improvements in total cholesterol (TC), TG, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), non-HDL-C, TC: HDL-C ratio and LDL-C: HDL-C ratio with the Com resulting in the greatest improvements in all measures barring TG. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that a larger dose of aerobic exercise does not necessarily equate in a greater improvement in lipoprotein profiles in at-risk sedentary male smokers if the lost aerobic exercise time is replaced with resistance exercise in the same session. The addition of resistance training to aerobic training is an effective alternative mode of exercise that can be used in the primary prevention of CVD, especially to elicit the unique benefits that each mode of exercise has to offer.

Effects of Exercise on C-Reactive Protein in Sedentary Smokers and Non-smokers

Studies report physical activity decreases inflammatory markers such as high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP). However, little research has been done on the effects of physical activity on hsCRP in a sedentary smoking population. PURPOSE: To determine if a walking program using walking poles and/or pedometers will show a decrease in hsCRP in sedentary smokers(S) and non- smokers(NS). METHODS: 17 female (40.5 + 8.7 yrs, 164.1 + 7.2 cm, 76.9 + 19.4 kg) and 2 male (53 yrs, 180.3 + 7.2 cm, 91.4 + 15.3 kg) subjects were chosen based on sedentary status determined by CDC/ACSM Physical Activity Guidelines. S and NS subjects were assigned to one of two exercise modes and accumulated at least 90 minutes of walking per week for 8 weeks. Volitional VO2 max, hsCRP, blood lipids, and body fat (%bf) were measured at orientation (Wk0) and week 8 (Wk8). Subjects recorded walking time and number of steps taken each week, and completed a 3-day diet record at Wk0 and Wk8. A repeated measures design was used to determine differences (p<0.05) between the S and NS groups at Wk0 and Wk8. An independent t-test was used to determine the difference in walking time and steps taken between S and NS. RESULTS: Overall hsCPR was significantly higher in S when compared to NS (p=0.008). There was a significant interaction between Wk0 and Wk8 for hsCRP in S and NS (p=0.027). HsCRP decreased in NS and increased in S after Wk8. There was a significant difference in overall TC/HDL ratio between S and NS (p=0.021) with NS having a lower TC/HDL Ratio. Total Cholesterol (TC), LDL, and %bf were higher in S overall. TC and LDL decreased in NS and increased in S over the 8 weeks. VO2max and HDL were higher in NS overall. Saturated fat intake increased after Wk8 for both S and NS, but NS tend to consume less. These trends were not statistically significant. There was no difference in walking time or steps taken between S and NS. CONCLUSIONS: HsCRP levels increased in the smoking population after wk8. Normally hsCRP levels lower after long term exercise but this has not been reported for smokers. This suggests that the activity for S may have elicited an inflammatory response for a sedentary (mean 27.01 + 5.1VO2 max) population. Future research should determine if hsCRP responds differently in a sedentary smoking population if a prescribed intensity level is monitored in a long term exercise program.

Postprandial Oxidative Stress in Exercise Trained and Sedentary Cigarette Smokers

We have recently noted that cigarette smokers experience an exaggerated triglyceride (TAG) and oxidative stress response to high fat feeding as compared to nonsmokers. Exercise training has the potential to enhance TAG removal and improve endogenous antioxidant defense; both of which may decrease postprandial oxidative stress. PURPOSE: To compare blood TAG, antioxidant capacity, and oxidative stress biomarkers in exercise-trained and sedentary cigarette smokers of similar age (22±2 yrs) in response to a high fat test meal. METHODS: Exercise-trained (n=10) and sedentary (n=10) cigarette smokers participated in this study. Blood samples were collected before and at 1, 2, 4, and 6 hours following a high fat test meal (1.2 grams of fat and carbohydrate; 0.25 grams of protein per kilogram body mass) and analyzed for TAG, malondialdehyde (MDA), xanthine oxidase activity (XO), hydrogen peroxide (H O ), and trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC). Antioxidant enzyme activity (superoxide dismutase {SOD}, glutathione peroxidase {GPx} and catalase {CAT}) were analyzed in pre meal blood samples. RESULTS: Although the activities of SOD, GPx, and CAT were generally higher for trained compared to sedentary smokers, none of these differences were statistically significant (p>0.05). Training status main effects were noted for MDA (p=0.0057) and TEAC (p=0.0197), with higher MDA and lower TEAC noted for sedentary compared to trained smokers. Time main effects were noted for all variables (p<0.02), with values higher than pre meal at times from 2-6 hours post meal (p<0.05). No training status by time interaction was noted for any variable; however, contrasts revealed lower values for trained compared to sedentary subjects at 4 (p=0.017) and 6 (p=0.039) hours post meal for MDA. CONCLUSION: Exercise training status does not influence postprandial lipemia or oxidative stress in a sample of young cigarette smokers, with the exception of lower MDA during the 4-6 hour post feeding period.

Effects of 16 weeks aerobic and weight training on body mass index

Body Mass Index (BMI) or the Quetelet index is used to assess weight relative to height and is commonly used as an inexpensive and accepted reliable method to determine levels or risk for developing obesity. The aim of this study was to determine the most effective mode of exercise in decreasing BMI in sedentary male smokers. A group of 50 sedentary male smokers aged between 20 and 35 years were randomly assigned into a non-exercising group (n = 12), weight training group (n = 13), aerobic training group (n = 12) or combination training group (n = 13). The subjects took part in their respective programmes over a 16-week period, three times per week. Weight training resulted in a significant undesirable 2.3% increase in BMI while aerobic training significantly favourably decreased BMI by 3.1%. BMI was not significantly altered in the combination training and non-exercising groups. The Partial r-test indicated significantly correlations with body mass (r = 0.986), lean mass (r = 0.630) and fat mass (r = 0.320). In conclusion, aerobic training is an effective training modality to decrease BMI and as such associated disease risk. It is recommended that caution should be taken when assessing the BMI of individuals with an increased lean mass as is expected following long-term weight training.

Cigarette smoking, regular exercise, and peripheral blood flow

Acute and chronic smoking reduces peripheral blood flow and shear stress, contributing to the increased incidence of peripheral arterial disease in smokers. Currently, it is not known whether physical activity status influences peripheral blood flow among chronic smokers. Blood flow was measured using Doppler ultrasound on the common femoral artery in nine young otherwise healthy sedentary smokers (eight males/one female) and nine physically-active smokers (six males/three females). Physically-active smokers performed strenuous exercise 4.4 times/week for 8 h/week. No significant differences in body fat, blood pressure, and total cholesterol were observed between groups. Basal femoral artery blood flow was ∼50% higher in physically-active smokers compared with sedentary smokers (259 ± 108 ml min −1 versus 173 ± 47 ml min −1, P < 0.05). The higher basal femoral artery blood flow in physically-active smokers compared with sedentary smokers was associated with a 47% higher femoral artery vascular conductance (2.99 ± 1.2 U versus 2.03 ± 0.5 U, P < 0.05) and a 39% lower vascular resistance (0.38 ± 0.13 U versus 0.53 ± 0.15 U, P < 0.05). Cardiac output, systemic vascular resistance, femoral intima-media thickness, and plasma norepinephrine concentration were not different between the groups. We concluded that smokers who habitually perform physical activity demonstrate greater levels of peripheral blood flow and peripheral vascular conductance. The findings from the present cross-sectional study suggest that chronic smokers may be able to negate, at least in part, the adverse effects of chronic smoking on the peripheral vasculature by performing regular physical activity.

Physical activity modulates the combined effect of a common variant of the lipoprotein lipase gene and smoking on serum triglyceride levels and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in men.

Physical activity has been identified as a protective factor against the occurrence and progression of coronary heart disease. The lipoprotein lipase (LPL) HindIII polymorphism has been associated with changes in triglyceride and high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol levels. We have investigated whether the association between the LPL HindIII genetic polymorphism and lipid levels is modified by physical activity. We have also tested the hypothesis that physical activity may interact with smoking and the LPL HindIII polymorphism to determine an individual's plasma lipid concentrations. A total of 520 men were selected from a representative sample used in a population study conducted in Gerona, Spain. The median value (291 kcal/day) of energy expenditure in leisure-time physical activity of the studied sample was selected as a cut-off to define sedentary or active subjects. Serum HDL-cholesterol was positively and significantly associated with the amount of daily energy expenditure in physical activity, whereas inverse associations were seen between physical activity and triglyceride concentration and with the triglyceride to HDL-cholesterol ratio. These effects were consistent across LPL HindIII genotypes. There was a statistically significant interaction between LPL genotype and smoking on lipid concentrations. No statistically significant differences were observed in lipid levels of active or sedentary non-smokers between H- carriers and H+H+ homozygotes for the LPL HindIII polymorphism. In smokers, sedentary H+H+ homozygotes showed significantly higher triglyceride and lower HDL-cholesterol concentrations than sedentary H- carriers. These differences were smaller and not statistically significant when lipid values of active H+H+ homozygotes were compared with active H- carriers. Among all subgroups, sedentary smokers with the H+H+ genotype had the most adverse lipid profile, which was considerably less adverse in H+H+ smokers who were physically active. These findings suggest that the presence of the H+H+ genotype has a deleterious effect on lipid profile in an adverse environment such as smoking, and that the expenditure of more than 291 kcal/day in physical activity attenuates this effect.

Smoking, physical activity, and other predictors of endurance and heart rate response to exercise in asymptomatic hypercholesterolemic men. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial.

The association of known coronary risk factors with progressive submaximal treadmill exercise tolerance test performance was studied in 6,238 asymptomatic white 34-60-year-old hypercholesterolemic men screened between 1973 and 1976 for the Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial. Cigarette smoking and habitual physical inactivity were each associated with a doubling of the rate of symptom-related discontinuation of the exercise test; the tests of sedentary smokers were discontinued at four times the rate observed for active nonsmokers. Smaller increases in heart rate were observed during exercise testing in physically active men and in smokers than in their sedentary and nonsmoking counterparts. Thus, smoking, like habitual physical activity, reduced the heart rate required to sustain a given external workload. However, the heart rates of smokers tended to remain elevated after exercise, while those of physically active men returned more rapidly toward resting levels. Age, Quetelet index, and low plasma levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol were also strong predictors of decreased endurance, while resting heart rate and blood pressure levels were significant predictors of heart rate response. Comparison of these results with those previously reported for ischemic electrocardiographic changes in this cohort suggests that coronary risk factors may selectively influence specific aspects of exercise tolerance test performance.

Maximum oxygen uptake capacity of smokers of different age groups.

Eighty-four healthy asymptomatic sedentary smokers and 92 healthy sedentary non-smokers of the age range 20-59 years were investigated for their maximum oxygen uptake capacity (VO2max) and related cardiorespiratory parameters at the level of maximal exercise by bicycle ergometry. The subjects were blocked into four age decades of 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, and 50-59 years to show the effect of smoking on VO2max of smokes of different age groups. The physical characteristics of smokers and non-smokers of comparable age groups did not show any significant difference. The smokers of each subsequent age group consumed 5.9 +/- 4.1, 6.3 +/- 5.7, 12.7 +/- 7.1, and 11.5 +/- 9.1 pack years of cigarettes, respectively (pack year = number of packets of cigarettes per day X number of years of smoking). VO2max of smokers (38.9 +/- 4.6 ml.kg-1.min-1) was significantly lower (p less than 0.05) than that of nonsmokers (42.1 +/- 3.2 ml.kg-1.min-1) only in the young age group of 20-29 years. VO2max expressed in per kg of the body weight (VO2max/BW) was found to be significantly (p less than 0.01) and negatively correlated with number of cigarettes smoked per day (-0.36, p less than 0.01), number of years through which smoked (-0.38, p less than 0.01), and pack years (-0.42, p less than 0.01). In other age groups, though non-smokers predominated over smokers in VO2max, the differences were not statistically significant. Also, in these age groups, smoking histories failed to reveal any significant correlation with VO2max. This suggests that smoking impairs VO2max only in the young ages. By increasing age, VO2max was diminished by 13% from 20 to 59 years in non-smokers and 15.5% from 20 to 59 years in smokers. Age also diminished HRmax and VEmax of smokers in the same manner as in the case of non-smokers. The VO2max of Indian sedentary non-smokers was found to be lower than those of Caucasians, Kurds, Yemenites, Europeans, and Africans. Values reported on Asians were found to be comparable with those of the present study.

Effects of acute exercise and cigarette smoking on autonomic and neuromuscular responses to a cognitive stressor.

The effects of smoking and acute aerobic exercise as coping responses to stress were studied in 12 male sedentary smokers. Changes in heart rate, skin conductance, and electromyographic activity were assessed during the coping responses and a mental arithmetic stressor. Analysis showed smoking and exercise increased heart rate and skin conductance, while exercise reduced electromyographic activity. No reliable effects of the coping responses on heart rate, skin conductance levels, or electromyographic changes to the stressor were observed.

Skeletal muscle metabolism, morphology and function in sedentary smokers and nonsmokers.

Smokers and nonsmokers of a homogeneous population of sedentary men have been compared with respect to skeletal muscle (vastus lateralis) morphological, metabolic and functional characteristics. The percentage type I fibres was lower and that of type IIB fibres higher in the smokers. Fibre areas were almost equal in the two groups. Muscle oxidative capacity was lowered in the smokers, as judged from decreased mitochondrial enzyme activities and a lowered fibrillar space mitochondrial volume fraction. Isometric and dynamic strengths were lower in the smokers, except at the highest velocity of movement studied. Dynamic strengths expressed in relation to isometric strength were similar at all velocities except the highest, where the smokers were relatively stronger. Muscular endurance, measured in short-term isometric and dynamic tests, was not different. It is suggested that the lowered muscle oxidative capacity and strength in the smokers may be partly a consequence of the different fibre type distribution. A possibly lower physical activity level, and tobacco smoke constituents (e.g. carbon monoxide) may also be instrumental. It is not clear whether the different fibre type distribution in the smokers is an effect of smoking per se, or if background factors are responsible.

Smoking and Metabolic Injury to the Myocardium

<h3>To the Editor:—</h3> In his interesting editorial inThe Journal(<b>186</b>:509 [Nov 2] 1963), Dr. William Dock, referring to the analogy between the well-known adrenergic effects of nicotine and of physical exertion on the heart, suggests that "Possibly... a cigarette may substitute for exercise, which is so often praised as protection against atherosclerosis." This hypothesis may give unwarranted comfort and encouragement to sedentary smokers. Nicotine and physical exertion produce identical cardiac effects by acutely liberating sympathogenic norepinephrine and epinephrine. These catechol amines increase myocardial oxygen consumption, thus causing hypoxia in whichever area of the heart muscle the normal compensatory dilatability of coronary vessels is impaired by sclerosis. However, the state of being physically trained, in contrast to the individual act of acute exertion, is characterized by a sustained (probably hypothalamus-mediated) lowering of the cardiac sympathetic tone, to the advantage of myocardial oxygen economy. Habitual smoking, on the other hand,