Security Sector Reform Processes Research Articles

Afghanistan’s Forgotten Boys: Legal Pluralism and Impunity

Abstract This article critically examines the pluralistic legal environment of Afghanistan, security sector reform processes engaged in by the international community, and the dismissal of the practice of bacha bazi as a cultural issue, which combined to allow the sexual abuse and exploitation of young boys to continue with impunity. The article calls for the United Nations and the international community to show strong, ethical, and transparent leadership on child protection within future mission mandates as a practical implementation of the secondary duty under the responsibility to protect (R2P).

The United Nations Approach to Security Sector Reform (SSR) in Haiti and the contribution from Colombia

This document aims to analyze the SSR implementation process in Haiti. Initially, SSR will be approached from the United Nations as the theoretical reference for these processes implementation. Then, the development of the SSR process in this country will be analyzed, identifying the application approach during the intervention of the different missions since 1994, establishing the recurring points on which the efforts were concentrated and characterizing the difficulties resulting from this implementation that have prevented the consolidation of an efficient and viable security system. The analysis is based on the 68 Reports of the Secretary General issued on the Haiti situation in seven missions deployed. It is a descriptive investigation, qualitative, documentary and with consultation of primary official sources. It is concluded that the results in terms of SSR in Haiti have been insufficient, despite the considerable effort made by the United Nations and the countries participating in peacekeeping operations, evidencing a greater parameterization of measurement of results in terms of RSS in the last two stages, MINUJUSTH and BINUH. The participation of the Colombian Military Forces in these missions was highlighted and recognized, especially with the deployment of 15 contingents of uniformed members of the National Police, leaving learning experiences and opportunities for institutional improvement.

The rule of law, the local turn, and re-thinking accountability in security sector reform processes

ABSTRACT Despite calls for the development of ‘second-generation’ approaches, security sector reform (SSR) processes in conflict-affected contexts remain dominated by state-centric strategies with weak records of improving security governance or human security. SSR’s current impasse, we suggest, is best captured in the tension between an ongoing commitment to the rule of law and a growing recognition that sustainable peace must be grounded in local traditions and practices. Our argument is that re-thinking the place of the rule of law within SSR as a long-term aspiration, rather than a short-term fix, requires reconsidering accountability in security governance. In contexts where the rule of law is weakly institutionalised, and where myriad forms of security provision co-exist, how (and by whom) can security actors be held accountable? We seek to identify varieties of extra-legal accountability arrangements that exist in conflict-affected contexts, and ways in which external actors may support – without coopting – such arrangements.

Navigating Ownership in the Context of the Security Sector Reform (SSR) in Mali: A Comparison of External Actors’ Approaches

ABSTRACT In view of the gap between policy and practice in Security Sector Reform (SSR) interventions, this article examines external actors' field-level practices with a focus on national ownership principles in the context of the SSR process in Mali from 2015 to 2016. It proceeds from the assumption that perceptions of institutional demands crucially impact the way organisations decide on appropriate actions. The findings show that, under conditions of a perceived absence of national commitment to SSR, external actors navigate conflicting demands by practicing avoidance, manipulation, and compromise-seeking. The article concludes with recommendations on strengthening external actors' adherence to ownership principles.

Fostering Democracy and Stability in Timor-Leste After the 2006 Crisis. On the Benefits of Coordinated and Cooperative Forms of Support

This paper analyses international support to stability and democracy in Timor-Leste in order to gain a better understanding on which factors help to render such efforts effective in fragile contexts. Focusing on the form and organization of support, it assesses the impact of international support at three critical junctures: the 2007 elections, the crisis of internal displacement, and security sector reform. It finds that high levels of coordination generally helped to render external support effective, whereas low levels significantly hampered its success, as diverging approaches in the security sector show, in particular. Cooperative forms of support have been more successful, as illustrated by the very successful international facilitation of the government-led resolution of the internal displacement crisis. More coercive measures in the Security Sector Reform process provoked resistance and reduced the effectiveness of international support. Yet, the analysis also shows the limits of cooperative forms of support when framework conditions are unfavourable.

Security sector reform and the challenge of vertical integration

ABSTRACTThe poor performance of conventional security sector reform (SSR) programming, especially in fragile and conflict-affected states, has led to growing calls for the development of a new generation of reform strategies capable of transcending the state-centrism of earlier approaches and delivering sustainable security dividends to insecure populations. This paper reflects on the challenges of second-generation SSR, with a particular emphasis on the imperatives of reconciling different understandings of ownership, of rendering SSR processes more inclusive, and of acknowledging the realities of non-state security provision. The paper suggests that at its core, SSR is about strengthening state-society relations, and that second-generation SSR will ultimately be judged on how effectively it comes to terms with the argument that genuine and sustainable change can only emerge through an endogenous process of relationship transformation, in which insiders, not outsiders, are the primary agents of change.

The Many Lives of a Peacekeeping Mission: The UN Operation in Côte D’Ivoire

The UN Operation in Cote d’Ivoire (UNOCI) completed its mandate on June 30, 2017, after more than thirteen years. One year later, the secretary-general is set to release his “comprehensive study of the role of UNOCI in the settlement of the situation” in the country. This presents an opportunity to examine the many stages or “lives” of a peacekeeping operation, something often overlooked. This report aims not only to contribute to this learning process but also to go beyond the scope of the secretary-general’s study to examine the trajectory of UNOCI over the years. It provides a historical account of the various phases of the Ivorian crisis and examines how UNOCI evolved and adapted to the circumstances and how the Security Council dealt with the Ivorian dossier. Based on this assessment, the report draws lessons from UNOCI for other peacekeeping missions. These include the challenges missions face when the consent of the host state is fragile, a permanent member of the Security Council is heavily involved, they have a mandate to certify elections, they take a robust approach to a crisis, they undertake both disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration and security sector reform processes, and the UN applies sanctions or arms embargoes.

Local perceptions of the EU’s role in peacebuilding: The case of security sector reform in Palestine

ABSTRACTPerception research can make a valuable contribution to the study of the local dimension in EU peacebuilding. The conceptual framework developed in this article distinguishes between perceptions of the “legitimacy,” “effectiveness,” and “credibility” of EU peacebuilding practices, which are crucial factors for successful peacebuilding. Relying on the case of the EU’s support for security sector reform (SSR) in Palestine, this article shows that local stakeholders—which participate in various EU-sponsored training and capacity-building programs—display considerable support for liberal peacebuilding norms. Yet, perceived discrepancies between the EU’s peacebuilding rhetoric and its SSR activities have severely undermined the potential of the EU’s liberal peacebuilding model in the eyes of Palestinian stakeholders. Critical local perceptions are frequently articulated with reference to the EU’s own liberal peacebuilding discourse, pointing to a lack of inclusiveness of the SSR process and deficits in terms of democratic governance and the rule of law.

Security Sector Reform: Nigerian Men, Gender Rights and Organizational Culture

This dissertation seeks to analyze the impact of societal norms on the organizational culture of security sector institutions with respect to male gender rights. A case study of the Nigeria Police Force's response to male victims of gender-based violence (GBV) was used as the basis of the research. Service delivery by officers of the Nigeria Police Force (NPF) has remained one of the major indicators for the success of the security sector reform process in Nigeria. Considered a highly repressive male dominated and gender-insensitive institution, for the past few years, there have been persistent calls for the transformation of the NPF into a citizen-friendly organization. In response, several reform-oriented initiatives have been introduced and implemented. In 2009, the NPF adopted its institutional Gender Policy and reconstituted its Gender Unit on 13th October 2014, all in a bid to ensure that gender is effectively mainstreamed in its organizational culture. By comparing the case study findings on the policies, norms and employee behavior within the NPF with a literature review and analytical framework, the dissertation attempts to determine whether the existing culture within the Nigerian society plays a major role in the organizational culture of the NPF in respect to institutional response to male victims of gender based violence.

Implementation of principle of local ownership: From victimization to empowerment of women

The paper presents the existence of a conflict between local ownership and the introduction of gender equality in situations of post-conflict peace-building under the control of international actors, mostly UN peacekeeping forces. The authors present the essential meanings of the term ?local ownership? and understanding of its importance for the success of peacekeeping missions and reforms of the security sector in post-conflict societies in achieveing lasting peace. Local civil or military leaders can actually consider that gender equality is not needed in their culture, and that the participation of women in the security sector is not socio-culturally acceptable. That is why various international actors may be reluctant to advocate for gender equality, considering it as an imposition of foreign cultural values that could potentially destabilize the security sector reform process. The paper presents examples of Sahel region, South Sudan, South Africa, East Timor and Sri Lanka, ilustrating that women and men have different experiences of conflict, and that women in conflict and post-conflict situations are especially vulnerable to sexual and other forms of gender-based violence. Therefore, women?s active participation in peace-building and ending violence and conflicts is essential for peace, security and general cessation of further victimization of women. Supporting the existing power relations characterized by structural gender inequality and violence diminish the value of security sector reform. Moreover, the process of peace-building is destabilized by maintaining permanent sources of victimization of women, discrimination and easy outbreak of armed conflict. This might result in the poorly reformed security sector, which only fits the needs of male local dominant groups and protects their interests, leaving majority of women still in a situation of high risk from various forms of victimization.

The rhetoric and practice of the ‘ownership’ of security sector reform processes in fragile countries: the case of Kosovo

ABSTRACTSuccessful outcomes in security sector reform (SSR) implementation are often conditioned on two key inter-related operational principles: international agencies’ understanding of the ‘local context’ where they intervene and their encouragement of the country ‘ownership’ of the institutional reforms they advocate. Outcomes, however, are determined by power, and different patterns of outcomes are likely to emerge from different types and degrees of power exercised by a multiplicity of actors operating in a dynamic political and social context. Drawing upon these inter-connections between outcomes and power, this article examines Kosovo’s security sector development experience since 1999. It argues that depending on types of, and changes in, power-based interplays between international and domestic forces, different patterns of ‘ownership’ have emerged in the context of SSR implementation in Kosovo.

Partnerships for human security in fragile contexts: where community safety and security sector reform intersect

ABSTRACTImplementing sustainable community safety and security sector reform (SSR) in highly unstable and conflict-affected contexts is a significant and growing challenge. Donor-led SSR processes claim to enable transparent, effective and accountable provision of security. Yet, traditional, externally driven SSR processes implemented in a top-down manner have been shown to have important shortcomings. Using the experience of a form of SSR undertaken in the Jenin Governorate in the Palestinian territories, this article highlights some of these shortcomings—in particular, a lack of local ownership, failure to address governance issues, co-optation of political and security elites, and neglect of citizens’ views and needs—as well as describing a viable method for overcoming them to produce a more sustainable approach to community safety in extremely difficult circumstances through the use of outcome-based local crime prevention planning processes. In contrast, the Jenin community safety project was a bottom-up, community-based approach that built effective ‘partnerships’ for crime prevention with both formal security providers (for example, security forces, executive authorities, parliamentarians and governors’ offices) and informal security providers (for example, civil society, the media, and tribal and business leaders) to produce a viable mechanism by which a safer community with stronger local leadership might be created.

Security sector reform – theory and practice

Security Sector Reform (SSR) is a concept and activity of the democratic transformation of defence, justice and rule of law systems. In accordance with the United Nations approach, SSR is critical to the consolidation of peace and stability, promoting poverty reduction, rule of law and good governance, extending legitimate state authority and preventing countries from relapsing into conflict. Over the last few decades, with many countries evolving and developing democratic processes, the concept has gained interest and popularity in international organisations and states heading towards a positive change. In the past, full SSR activities had been successfully conducted in central and east European post-communist countries. Nowadays, the process is carried out among African and Middle East countries, in some of them this being extremely challenging. A considerable degree of complexity characterizes the SSR processes. For this reason, a great deal of effort has been exerted with the aim of normalising rules and conditions for conducting SSR. The purpose of these activities is to ensure the widest possible effect of the use of scarce expert resources. SSR is a relatively new area of expertise suffering from a scarcity of literature presenting theory in conjunction with practice. During the research conducted it was assumed that, in spite of a wide array of actions to be executed within SSR in different states, they should be interconnected by a general model which would ensure the greatest effect. The aim of this essay is to present selected theoretical aspects of SSR, essential for increasing the effectiveness of the reforms conducted, illustrated with a practical example of the SSR process in Egypt.

Security Sector Reform and the Paradoxical Tension between Local Ownership and Gender Equality

This article analyses the tension or conflict that can exist between the principles of local ownership and gender equality that guide Security Sector Reform (SSR) programmes when gender discrimination and patriarchal values characterise the local environment (and ‘locals’ do not value gender equality). In these situations, international actors may be reluctant to advocate gender equality, regarding it as imposing culturally alien values and potentially destabilising to the SSR process. It is argued, however, that the tension between local ownership and gender equality is deceptive and merely serves to protect the power of dominant groups and disempower the marginalised, often serving to disguise the power relations at play in post-conflict environments and avoid addressing the security needs of those who are often at most risk. The paper concludes that rather than a tension existing between the two principles, in fact, local ownership without gender equality is meaningless. Moreover, failing to promote gender equality undermines the extent to which SSR programmes result in security and justice sector institutions that are representative of and responsive to the needs of both men and women. It can also perpetuate structural inequalities and conflict dynamics and, ultimately, limit the success of SSR and broader peacebuilding processes.

New Perspectives on Security Sector Reform: The Role of Local Agency and Domestic Politics

This special issue identifies new directions in research on the consequences of international involvement in security sector reform (SSR). Both empirically and theoretically, the focus lies on the so far neglected role of local agency and domestic power constellations. The introductory article maps out different ways to analyse the external-domestic interaction dynamics that structure the often contentious and asymmetric encounters between international and local interests and demands in SSR processes. It makes the case for moving beyond a state-centric approach to the study of security governance in areas of limited statehood and for engaging more closely with the layered, mixed or hybrid security orders that can result from external engagement in domestic reform contexts.

Security Sector Reform and the Emergence of Hybrid Security Governance

Comprehensive Security Sector Reform (SSR) has become a crucial component of many international peace- and statebuilding operations. The paper assesses the consequences of these attempts to foster international standards of ‘democratic security governance’ in the security sectors of post-conflict or fragile states. The paper builds on qualitative case study research of SSR interventions in Timor-Leste, Liberia, and the Palestinian Territories, conducted 2010–2012, to trace patterns of adoption, adaptation or rejection of international security governance standards by domestic actors. The article uses insights from sociological organization theories to identify different types of ‘hybrid security orders’ that result from encounters between international and domestic models of security governance in SSR processes.

The hollowing-out of the liberal peace project in Afghanistan: the case of security sector reform

Security sector reform (SSR) has been described as a linch-pin of the liberal state-building and peace-building processes in Afghanistan. The process was originally framed in accordance with the core liberal principles of the SSR model, prioritizing good governance, respect for human rights, sustainability, and democratic civilian control. However, as time passed and security and political conditions began to deteriorate on the ground, the process would gradually revert to a more conventional train-and-equip form, with its core liberal principles stripped away. The slide toward expediency experienced by the SSR process in Afghanistan demonstrates the deeply flawed manner in which the liberal peace project was advanced in Afghanistan. SSR donors became increasingly ambivalent about the human-security objectives of SSR, which were superseded by exigencies of the counterinsurgency, regional security, and domestic pressure for withdrawal. The Afghan experience has raised further doubt about the viability of the orthodox SSR model in conflict-affected countries, already the subject of significant critical debate.

Security Agencies and Parliamentary Committees of Inquiry in Germany: Transparency vs. Confidentiality

IntroductionGood is the political concept through which transitional and post-conflict states seek to be integrated into those parts of the international community that embrace the ideals of democracy and the rule of law and place a premium on the will of the people. One of the most decisive factors for the implementation of good governance is in how the security sector interacts with the state and contributes to the public welfare. In particular, the security sector should be subject to civilian oversight and control, make decisions that are comprehensible, and be held accountable for misconduct and unlawful actions.This concept has led to a worldwide movement for security sector reform (SSR). As the global SSR agenda has been developed and implemented over the past decade, there has been increasing pressure to better integrate the security sector into the state in an effort to restrict the use of security forces as oppressive tools for power by a particular regime, clan, or individual. This is the most important task facing those countries that are embarking on SSR processes in an effort to align themselves more closely with the Euro-Atlantic security space, as the most crucial element in reforming a security sector is to build a nationally-owned and led vision of security that embraces modem-day standards of transparency.In this light, several states in the Caucasus, Southern Europe, and the Middle East have launched reform initiatives to strengthen parliamentary control and governmental oversight over police services, the military, and intelligence services. There are numerous examples where previous security sectors of states within those and other regions have been involved in serious human rights abuses and have colluded in maintaining a corrupt or tyrannical regime. Considering this sometimes difficult background, it becomes even more obvious what a huge effort a reform seeking transparency in the secu- rity sector actually entails. Visible indications of the implementation of good governance are vague at best with respect to both internal and external security, making them particularly difficult to identify. However, if parliamentary control and closer supervision by the ministries of the civilian government lead to the exposure of serious deficits within the power apparatus of the state-especially in the sensitive field of intelligence services-and succeed in drawing reasonable conclusions without reverting to historic behavioral patterns, then this would be counted as a strong indication of progress. The Federal Republic of Germany has spent decades reforming their security sector, and can serve as an example that other states might follow.Over the last few decades the Federal Republic of Germany has developed a complex system of checks and balances to provide oversight within the security sector. Some of the checks and balances that have been put into place within the many layers of the security sector to ensure there is sufficient oversight are:* Distinctions between the fields of responsibility for federal and state agencies* An emphasis on the different aspects of oversight in the form of parliamentary control and executive supervision of the security sector* A consistent judicial system, along with institutions such as the permanent Parliamentary Control Panel* Investigations into and the publication by the media of misconduct and unlawful actions.Similarly, other Western-oriented states have created diverse mechanisms for control and oversight of their security sectors, wherein the scope, means of intervention, and composition of responsible authorities vary. More often than not, the balancing act between the executive and legislative branches has led to the establishment of expert or parliamentary institutions dedicated to questions of budget, lawfulness of actions, and strategic alignment of the intelligence services.Unique to Germany are the ad hoc parliamentary Committees of Inquiry (COI) at the federal level. …

Introduction: Hybrid Security Governance in Africa

Security Sector Reform (SSR) programmes have not sufficiently acknowledged the fact that in Africa, security governance is based on a complex amalgam of statutory and non‐statutory actors and institutions which do form the security sector. SSR processes are more often than not focused on structural and formal institutional arrangements of the state and are generally seen as a purely technico‐institutional reform, based on techniques of organisational engineering and principles of institutional design. Consequently, security reform processes, most of the time promoted or supported by external donors, tend to be driven by an administrative view of the state which emphasises its legal structure whilst glossing over its political and social character. Today, there is a dire need to take a critical stance on the relationships between the various systems, actors and beneficiaries involved in the security sector on the African continent. This introductive article proposes to refer to the analytic model of ‘hybridity’ to grasp the current realities and the prospects of the security sector in African countries.

Civil society and security sector oversight

Much is made in the security sector reform literature of the role of civil society as an overseer and monitor of the security sector, contributing to improved accountability and governance. This paper looks at how the notion of ‘civil society capacity’ needs to be disaggregated in order to develop meaningful strategies to assist civil society organisations to impact security sector reforms in complex, post-conflict contexts like the Democratic Republic of Congo. It draws on fieldwork conducted with 200 Congolese civil society groups that are attempting to engage in current security sector reform processes, and looks at which capacities are required to improve oversight by civil society groups.