Security Community Research Articles

Systemic wisdom and complex strategic competition: a systems approach

Strategic competition is a reoccurring phrase in the foreign policy and national security community to describe the current relationship between the United States and China. However, strategic competition and the goals of such a competition are rarely defined. A clear definition of strategic competition is necessary to grasp its implications for the United States and the world. This is even more important as the strategic competition between the United States and China is complex. Applying complexity and systems theory to strategic competition, it is framed as an interaction between two complex systems in a complex international system. By drawing on the competencies of systemic wisdom, policymakers concerned with strategic competition can have a toolkit for better understanding the complexity of strategic competition. While complexity cannot be controlled nor put aside, working with the complex system dynamics of strategic competition can help the United States manage and succeed in strategic competition.

Advancing Food Security with Farmed Edible Insects: Economic, Social, and Environmental Aspects.

Farmed edible insects are considered a potential resource to help address food security concerns toward the year 2050. The sustainability (e.g., lower environmental impact), nutritional (e.g., high-quality proteins, essential amino acids, fiber, unsaturated fats, vitamins, and minerals) and health (e.g., antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory) benefits are the main reasons for the rise in interest for insects as alternative protein sources for food and feed production. Thus, edible insects can address the future global protein demand of an ever-increasing world population. In this context, several aspects related to their sustainability have been explored and addressed from an environmental perspective. This review describes the rationale for using insects as alternative protein sources and provides a comprehensive viewpoint, integrating economic, environmental, and social aspects into their sustainability framework toward addressing food insecurity concerns. For example, edible insects offer a more sustainable protein source comparable to, or even better than, that of conventional livestock. Considering their sustainability advantages, insects are noted for their lower impact on natural resources (e.g., water and agrarian land) and lower greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., carbon dioxide and methane). From a socioeconomic point of view, edible insects have lower production costs compared to conventional animal protein sources because of their high feed efficiency conversion, rapid growth rate, and short life cycles. Currently, the market for edible, farmed insects is becoming a significant economic activity that not only meets the needs of industry and consumers but also supports the ability of future generations to maintain a secure and sustainable community.

Towards Ending AIDS: The Additional Role of HIV Self-Testing in Thailand.

In 2022, 10% of an estimated 560,000 people living with HIV in Thailand were unaware of their HIV status. A well-established HIV program is a solid platform for integrating HIV self-testing (HST) as part of efforts to end AIDS. We analyzed how HST was integrated into the national HIV program and became a benefit package. In 2015, the National AIDS Prevention and Alleviation Committee included HST as a strategy to end HIV/AIDS by 2030. This led to collaboration between the Department of Disease Control (DDC), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and partner networks, including civil society organizations, to amend policy regulations, allowing HIV testing outside health care facilities and facilitating HST registration. By 2024, 4 HST commercial products were registered by the Thai FDA. In 2020, the DDC launched pilot programs distributing HST kits through private pharmacies in Bangkok and online platforms. Preliminary findings showed feasibility in reaching key populations and adolescents. In 2023, HST was included in the Universal Health Coverage benefit package, providing free access to all citizens. Guidelines, e-learning, public awareness campaigns, and a reimbursement system of HST were developed and implemented. By September 2024, over 166,000 users had received HST kits. Leadership, scientific evidence, feasibility testing through pilots, regulatory adjustments, licensing, price negotiations by the National Health Security Office, and stakeholder and community engagement were key to the program's success. A nationwide distribution network through public and private health care facilities, including pharmacies, was a key enabling factor for HST delivery. HST is an additional intervention to increase awareness of HIV status and a key component in Thailand's effort to end HIV/AIDS.

Foreign and Familiar: Recruitment Pathways of Young People Engaged with Extremism in Australia

It has been established by leaders of the Australian national security community, such as the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation and the Australian Federal Police, that young people are being increasingly recruited into extremism. To date, few Australian studies have examined this issue using primary source data. This article seeks to understand the conditions which may make vulnerable young Australians more susceptible to recruitment, recruitment pathways, and forms of recruitment. To address this, primary sources were consulted, and frontline countering violent extremism (CVE) practitioners were interviewed. It was found that there is no typical pathway for young Australians to be recruited to extremism and that recruitment can be both foreign (informed by transnational networks and organisations) and/or familiar (within the immediate domestic environment of the young person). We identified the continued significance of online vectors, but further established the ongoing relevance and power of offline engagement for the recruitment of young people. Finally, we suggest that multiple intersecting vulnerabilities render young people more susceptible to recruitment, with data that suggests they may be naïve to their being recruited in the first place.

A Security Community or a Game of Interests? Opportunities and Threats in Central Europe During a Time of Crisis

The war in Ukraine and the multidimensional crisis in Europe are adversely affecting the position, ability, and possibilities of cooperation in Central Europe. For the past 30 years, the Central European nations, despite their natural differences, have been able to engage in lasting cooperation to ensure their own and the region’s security. It seems that there has been a unique kind of cooperation for common interests, as Karl Deutsch puts it. Presently, we can see that, due to the decisions of voters, diverse interests, and the external position of the Central European nations, there are internal differences and divisions. In some cases, the region’s nations have a specific kind of personal game of interests. The article will attempt to outline the latest and most relevant matters that are high on the region’s agenda, particularly taking into account opportunities and threats.

The threat of illegal imports related to narcotics and cosmetics smuggling in the border area of Tarakan: A review from the perspective of national resilience

The purpose of this study is to identify and analyze the threat of illegal importation, especially the smuggling of narcotics and cosmetics, in the border area of Tarakan, Indonesia. This study adopted a qualitative approach with a case study method, focusing on the operations of Customs during the 2022-2023 period. The analysis of the literature and empirical data obtained through this study revealed that illegal imports pose a number of potential threats that have a significant impact on national security and social and community stability. The vulnerability of unofficial routes and the persistence of illegal activities despite ongoing enforcement measures are the main factors contributing to the success of smugglers' activities. Behavioral analysis of modus operandi reveals that one of the factors that support the successful ssuggling is the cooperation between sggler networks and local communities in border areas. In addition, this study identified several strategic approaches to strengthen surveillance of illegal snugglers, including the use of digital communication tools and new operational strategies, to provide insights for adaptive law enforcement measures. The research provides actionable recommendations for enhancing border security strategies, strengthening inter-agency coordination, and developing targeted policies to mitigate the impact of illegal imported activities on national safety and public welfare.

Farm Crime Experiences and Effects on Livelihood in Awendo Sub County, Kenya

This study dealt with farm crime experiences and effects on livelihood in Awendo sub County in Kenya. The study employed a descriptive survey design, using the mixed methods research approach, with a sample of 384 respondents. The study used a questionnaire, an Interview schedule and Focus Group Discussion as sources of data. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic approach. Based on the findings, the study concluded that distinct patterns of farm crime victimization existed in Awendo. They involved offences like night attacks on isolated farms. The study found a rising trend in farm-related crimes, mainly when crops are ready for harvest. In response, local authorities and community leaders should implement targeted security patrols and community watch programs, focused on vulnerable farm locations, especially at night. Law enforcement agencies should raise farmers' awareness of the importance of environmental security measures, including improved lighting and fencing, especially during high-risk times.

Making a World of Climate Insecurity: The Threat Multiplier Frame and the US National Security Community

Abstract How do dominant framings of climate change and security shape the future trajectory of climate security? This article answers these questions by analyzing the dominant threat multiplier framing of climate change and security in the American national security context. Using the emergent worldmaking concept, it argues that American national security organizations’ intellectual and physical responses to questions of climate security risk creating a dismal and limited future in which national security systems adopt a reactive and managerial posture toward the effects of climate change. The key effect of this frame is to reorient questions of climate and security around the priorities and agendas of national security organizations rather than at the sources of need and instability.

Navigating higher education in conflict zones: the role of professional capital and community engagement in northern Syria

PurposeThis study examines the critical role of higher education in conflict zones, focusing on the northern regions of Syria affected by Operation Olive Branch and Operation Euphrates Shield. It explores how educational leaders navigate security challenges, community relations and curriculum development to sustain academic activities during ongoing conflicts.Design/methodology/approachEmploying a qualitative research design, the study utilizes semi-structured interviews with higher education administrators in Northern Syria. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis, allowing for the identification of key themes related to security, community integration and educational quality.FindingsThe study highlights how administrators' professional capital – encompassing skills, knowledge and relationships – enables them to manage complex situations. It underscores the role of education in maintaining normalcy, promoting peace and providing psychosocial support during conflicts. Key findings include the importance of ensuring security, fostering community engagement, maintaining educational quality and innovating curricula to address local needs.Originality/valueThis paper provides insights into the unique challenges faced by higher education institutions in conflict zones and the strategies employed by leaders to overcome them. It emphasizes the transformative potential of education in promoting stability and peace in war-torn regions, offering valuable lessons for similar contexts worldwide.

‘Social defence’ and the resilience of the domestic war on terror: A genealogy of social security, national security, and defence

Abstract Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has moved attention within International Security back to Great Power Politics and interstate war, and away from phenomena like ‘foreign terrorist fighters’ and lone actor terrorism. Is the War on Terror paradigm receding? This paper argues that counter-radicalisation imaginaries and counter-extremism programming will all remain stubbornly present despite the shift back to interstate war. The resilience of domestic War on Terror policies will stem from their integration within local municipality activity and social policy during the second decade of the 21st century. These policy areas and levels are detached from the international security community, meaning that shifts in attention at the global level will have little effect upon localised national security practices. The paper then interrogates how counterterrorism agendas have so successfully entered the world of social policy and local public administration, using genealogical methods to trace how social security and crime prevention were historically prefaced upon defence. The paper traces the policy paradigm of ‘social defence’ which dominated mid-20th century international organisations, targeting non-criminal juveniles with pre-emptive interventions to prevent ‘dangerous persons’ imperilling society. Effectively, this untold history of crime prevention in Europe demonstrates the profound interlocking of national security, social policy and defence across the 20th century, with implications for the resilience of this triad.

Fear and the Safety Net: Evidence from Secure Communities

Abstract We study the effects of Secure Communities, an immigration enforcement program that dramatically increased interior removals of Hispanic noncitizens from the United States, on participation in means-tested social insurance programs among co-ethnic citizens. Exploiting county-level variation in the roll-out of enforcement together with its ethnic specificity, we find that Hispanic-headed citizen households significantly reduced their participation in two large federal safety net programs. Our results are most consistent with network effects that propagate fear through minority communities rather than stigma or lack of benefit information.

Analysis Of The Implementation Of The ASEAN Political Security Community Framework In The Philippines In Counter Terrorism Efforts

Analysis Of The Implementation Of The ASEAN Political Security Community Framework In The Philippines In Counter Terrorism Efforts

The impact of Secure Communities on the labor market outcomes of immigrant women

AbstractThe United States deported nearly 400,000 unauthorized immigrants under the Secure Communities (SC) interior immigration enforcement program between 2008 and 2014. This paper uses variation in the intensity of deportations across immigrants’ country of origin and city of residence to assess the labor market consequences of SC on foreign‐born women. We find no effect on the total number of employed immigrant women, but both annual wages and the number of hours worked fell. Moreover, SC induced a shift toward occupations with lower average pay and education requirements, higher exposure to hazards, and less contact with others. This is consistent with a chilling effect in labor markets such that some foreign‐born women were willing to sacrifice better pay and working environments for the ability to avoid detection.

Defining, Measuring, and Increasing “Rootedness” in the High Migration Context of Honduras

Executive Summary The notion of “rootedness” in the sociology and migration literature is not well defined despite its increasing use by academics and, especially, practitioners. Defining and measuring rootedness has been problematic given that it is often operationalized as, but is not fully captured by, a concept related to social capital, community attachment, and participation. Rootedness is also often thought of as solely the absence of the desire to migrate. However, we argue that an individual’s desire to stay can be just as important as the well-documented “root causes” of migration; that is, economic poverty, insecurity, and strong migration networks. We propose a working definition of the concept of rootedness based on an empirical analysis of data from a nationally representative survey in the high migration context of Honduras. We find that rootedness can both be defined as and measured by an individual’s agreement with the idea that where they live is their “true home” and that they “see a good future” in that location. We further find that rootedness can be increased via a strong sense of security (not only the absence of victimization) and active community support for youth. Programs and policies should therefore promote security that goes beyond just preventing crime and fosters a general sense of wellbeing. In particular, programs should promote efforts to ensure that youth are supported by incorporating them in community decision-making, listening to what youth propose, promoting youth participation, and supporting youth leadership. Importantly, income is not strongly associated with this definition of rootedness. This finding highlights the important role of non-economic factors in migration decisions. Even when income increases, it does not necessarily increase the aspiration to stay. To be rooted, as we conceive of it, means more than having sufficient income. In summary, the paper examines and offers a new understanding of the concept of “rootedness,” which speaks to why some members of a community want to migrate and others desire to remain in their home communities. Fleshing out our understanding of rootedness as a way to talk about and measure the desire to remain is therefore crucial to realizing the “right” or “freedom” to stay at home.

Secure in Diversity? Transborder Ethnicity, Transnational Minority Activism, and Ontological (In)Security in the European Union

Abstract The liberal vision of the early 1990s envisaged the eastward extension of the Western European security community formed during the Cold War, based on intergovernmental cooperation and integration around the shared norms embodied by the European Union (EU), Council of Europe, and Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Yet, transborder ethnic ties have remained a security concern within the “New Europe.” As well as the external challenges posed by Russia’s aggression against Ukraine, growing transborder nationalism exhibited by Hungary and other states has also become a focus of tensions within the EU. These intra-EU concerns, I argue, should be understood primarily as an issue of ontological security and as part of a multilevel security dilemma implicating states, EU institutions, and national minorities as security-seeking non-state actors. The article focuses on the Federal Union of European Nationalities—a transnational umbrella NGO that in 2013–2021 led an unsuccessful European Citizens’ Initiative named “Minority SafePack” (MSPI) calling upon the European Commission to legislate on firmer guarantees of minority rights within EU member states. Applying the ontological security lens to the study of MSPI, I illustrate how it reflects specific claims voiced by transborder kin-minority activists consistently over the past century, before analyzing the counter-securitizing arguments deployed against it by states. Although MSPI was approved with a large majority within the European Parliament, the Commission ultimately rejected it. I consider why this was the case, as well as the implications of the rejection for the in varietate concordia concept that supposedly undergirds the European project.

The Unintended Consequence of Stringent Immigration Enforcement on Staffing Levels in Nursing Homes: Evidence from Secure Communities

AbstractThe provision of healthcare in the United States is increasingly reliant on immigrant workers. In this paper, I examine the impact of Secure Communities, a major immigration enforcement program designed to check the immigration status of all individuals arrested by local police, on staffing levels in nursing homes. Using a difference‐in‐differences strategy that exploits the staggered activation of Secure Communities across US counties, I found that the program reduced directcare staff hours per resident day by 0.073, an approximately 2% decline relative to the mean of treatment counties in the baseline period. This finding suggests that stringent immigration enforcement may exacerbate the healthcare worker shortage in the United States.

Identifying Appropriate Intellectual Property Protection Mechanisms for Machine Learning Models: A Systematization of Watermarking, Fingerprinting, Model Access, and Attacks.

The commercial use of machine learning (ML) is spreading; at the same time, ML models are becoming more complex and more expensive to train, which makes intellectual property protection (IPP) of trained models a pressing issue. Unlike other domains that can build on a solid understanding of the threats, attacks, and defenses available to protect their IP, ML-related research in this regard is still very fragmented. This is also due to a missing unified view as well as a common taxonomy of these aspects. In this article, we systematize our findings on IPP in ML while focusing on threats and attacks identified and defenses proposed at the time of writing. We develop a comprehensive threat model for IP in ML, categorizing attacks and defenses within a unified and consolidated taxonomy, thus bridging research from both the ML and security communities.

GBKPA and AuxShield: Addressing adversarial robustness and transferability in android malware detection

Android stands as the predominant operating system within the mobile ecosystem. Users can download applications from official sources like Google Play Store and other third-party platforms. However, malicious actors can attempt to compromise user device integrity through malicious applications. Traditionally, signatures, rules, and other methods have been employed to detect malware attacks and protect device integrity. However, the growing number and complexity of malicious applications have prompted the exploration of newer techniques like machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL). Many recent studies have demonstrated promising results in detecting malicious applications using ML and DL solutions. However, research in other fields, such as computer vision, has shown that ML and DL solutions are vulnerable to targeted adversarial attacks. Malicious actors can develop malicious adversarial applications that can bypass ML and DL based anti-viruses. The study of adversarial techniques related to malware detection has now captured the security community’s attention. In this work, we utilise android permissions and intents to construct 28 distinct malware detection models using 14 classification algorithms. Later, we introduce a novel targeted false-negative evasion attack, Gradient Based K Perturbation Attack (GBKPA), designed for grey-box knowledge scenarios to assess the robustness of these models. The GBKPA attempts to craft malicious adversarial samples by making minimal perturbations without violating the syntactic and functional structure of the application. GBKPA achieved an average fooling rate (FR) of 77 % with only five perturbations across the 28 detection models. Additionally, we identified the most vulnerable android permissions and intents that malicious actors can exploit for evasion attacks. Furthermore, we analyse the transferability of adversarial samples across different classes of models and provide explanations for the same. Finally, we proposed AuxShield defence mechanism to develop robust detection models. AuxShield reduced the average FR to 3.25 % against 28 detection models. Our findings underscore the need to understand the causation of adversarial samples, their transferability, and robust defence strategies before deploying ML and DL solutions in the real world.

The fragmentation of public power: non-state security actors and community security in rural Southwest Nigeria

ABSTRACT The phenomenon of ungoverned (and ill-governed, and ungovernable) spaces has resulted in increases in insecurity in Nigeria’s rural communities, especially breeding insurgencies and other forms of militancy. As a corollary, non-state security actors have arisen as community-created mechanisms to reduce the ever-increasing rates of crime. This study investigated the establishment of these NSSAs, with a view to understanding community perceptions of their effectiveness. Using selected inclusion/exclusion criteria, the study targeted two rural communities in Southwest Nigeria and collected data using a structured online survey. Data were analyzed using a simple linear regression model. The findings revealed that the residents of the communities feel safer under the protection of the vigilante groups, and the groups have been effective in reducing crime rates.

The Governance of Cybercrime: An Ecological Approach

Cybercrime is now the most common form of crime in Canada and causes significant financial and psychological harm. The criminal justice system struggles to address cybercrime due to its complexity, scale, and global nature. Criminologists are also challenged to think about cybercrime beyond established theoretical frameworks. An interdisciplinary approach is required to understand this phenomenon and enable us to craft effective policies. The discipline of ecology can provide valuable insights and a practical integrative framework through the concepts of community, interaction, and emergent effects. First, a high-level outline is provided of how the cybercrime ecosystem can be analyzed using basic ecological concepts and principles. This framework is then applied to the security community, showing how it is populated with a diversity of organizational and institutional entities that can be enabled or compelled to act in ways that enhance online security through a broad set of regulatory strategies. Finally, three innovative configurations that take advantage of this regulatory pluralism and novel forms of collaboration are described to illustrate how alternatives can be implemented to mitigate the negative impacts of cybercrime with promising outcomes.