Secular Increase In Height Research Articles

Do mating preferences remain the same when phenotypes change? Assortative mating for physical characteristics in an indigenous community in the valley of Oaxaca, southern Mexico.

Objective. To test the hypothesis that assortative mating for physical characteristics differs before and after major secular increases in height in an indigenous community in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Methods. Spouse pairs were identified in household and anthropometric surveys of a Zapotec-speaking community in 1978 (n = 68-70 pairs) and 2000 (n = 99-100 pairs). Height, weight, arm circumference, triceps skinfold and grip strength were measured. Assortative mating was calculated as Pearson correlations. Results. Husband-wife correlations for age were high in both years (r = 0.96, 0.95). Assortative mating for height was significant in 1978 (r = 0.35, p < 0.001) and in 2000 (r = 0.21, p < 0.01), but decreased when ages were controlled (1978, 0.21, p < 0.05; 2000, 0.11). Correlations (zero and second order, respectively) were low for the BMI (1978, 0.02, 0.02; 2000, 0.04, 0.05). Spouse correlations for grip strength were significant in both surveys (r = 0.25 to 0.45), but were reduced (p > 0.05) when ages of spouses were controlled (r = -0.02 to 0.16). Conclusion. Assortative mating for physical characteristics did not differ between surveys conducted before (1978) and after (2000) major secular increases in height in the community, and any possible genetic effect of the secular trend on assortative was likely negligible.

Secular trends in growth in the high-altitude district of Nuñoa, Peru 1964-2015.

Nuñoa, Peru has been the site of anthropological research on human adaptability, growth, and health since the 1960s. Previous studies documented a nascent secular trend in growth between 1964 and 1984. However, no secular trend was evident when the population was re-examined in 1999, following an intervening period of sociopolitical upheaval. Subsequently, the region experienced considerable economic development reflected in secular increases in height. We seek to evaluate trends in growth and BMI among Nuñoan children over 50 years. Anthropometric data for 929 children collected in 2015 are compared with anthropometric data for 394 children from 1964, 912 children from 1984, and 292 children from 1999. The data were converted to z-scores using the WHO 2007 growth standards. anova is used to evaluate rates of stunting, underweight, overweight, and obesity across the study periods. We observe small increases in stature and weight between the 1960s and 1980s, almost no change between the 1980s and 1990s and statistically significant reductions in stunting and increases in height between the 1990s and 2015. There were relatively small differences in stature and weight and a high incidence of stunting between 1964 and 1999 attributed to extremely poor economic and health conditions. A large secular increase in height (7-8 cm on average) and consequent reduction in rates of stunting between 1999 and 2015 occurred due to improved social and economic conditions. In addition to political stabilization, enhanced infrastructure, social aid programs, improved healthcare, and economic expansion contribute to these trends.

Disease and child growth in industrialising Japan: Critical windows and the growth pattern, 1917–39

This paper assesses how the disease environment, proxied by infant mortality rates, influenced children's growth in interwar Japan. We use data drawn from government records from 1929 to 1939 which report the mean heights of boys and girls in school at each age (6–18) for each of Japan's 47 prefectures. We focus on two key questions: (1) how important was the disease environment in infancy in shaping the growth pattern of children? and (2) were shocks to child health more salient in the first thousand days of life, often held as a critical window to prevent stunting, or at later ages? We quantify the characteristics of the growth pattern of birth cohorts using the SITAR growth model and then relate the predicted SITAR parameters to infant mortality in the year of birth. In addition, we test for instantaneous effects of morbidity, proxied by infant mortality, on growth at ages 6–11. We find that infant mortality in early life did not have a strong influence on the growth pattern of children, but there were statistically significant and economically meaningful instantaneous effects of infant mortality on child height at ages 6–11 for both boys and girls. This suggests that interventions outside of the thousand-day critical window can be effective and that the secular increase in height in interwar Japan was more strongly influenced by cumulative responses to the health environment across child development rather than simply improvements in early life health.

The impact of World War II on nutrition and children's health in Italy

The impact of World War II on the nutrition and health of Italian children is examined. During the Second World War (1939–1945), both per capita GDP and consumption collapsed in Italy. Infant mortality increased. The anthropometric measurements of a sample of schoolchildren show a loss in weight and height in comparison with the pre-war years. Measurements of conscripts born during the conflict show an interruption in the secular increase in height, with a decrease in the mean height of conscripts born in 1945. The adverse impact of the war on height, particularly affected the northern regions, and appears to be related to the ‘geography of conflict’ in Italy.

Body Size of Male Youth Soccer Players: 1978-2015.

Studies of the body size and proportions of athletes have a long history. Comparisons of athletes within specific sports across time, though not extensive, indicate both positive and negative trends. To evaluate secular variation in heights and weights of male youth soccer players reported in studies between 1978 and 2015. Reported mean ages, heights, and weights of male soccer players 9-18years of age were extracted from the literature and grouped into two intervals: 1978-99 and 2000-15. A third-order polynomial was fitted to the mean heights and weights across the age range for each interval, while the Preece-Baines model 1 was fitted to the grand means of mean heights and mean weights within each chronological year to estimate ages at peak height velocity and peak weight velocity for each time interval. Third-order polynomials applied to all data points and estimates based on the Preece-Baines model applied to grand means for each age group provided similar fits. Both indicated secular changes in body size between the two intervals. Secular increases in height and weight between 1978-99 and 2000-15 were especially apparent between 13 and 16years of age, but estimated ages at peak height velocity (13.01 and 12.91years) and peak weight velocity (13.86 and 13.77years) did not differ between the time intervals. Although the body size of youth soccer players increased between 1978-99 and 2000-15, estimated ages at peak height velocity and peak weight velocity did not change. The increase in height and weight likely reflected improved health and nutritional conditions, in addition to the selectivity of soccer reflected in systematic selection and retention of players advanced in maturity status, and exclusion of late maturing players beginning at about 12-13years of age. Enhanced training programs aimed at the development of strength and power are probably an additional factor contributing to secular increases in body weight.

Adolescent weight and height are predictors of specific non-Hodgkin lymphoma subtypes among a cohort of 2,352,988 individuals aged 16 to 19 years.

The age-adjusted annual incidence of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) has risen worldwide. This trend may be affected by the secular increase in height and the sharp upswing in adolescent overweight; these drive increased insulinlike growth factor 1 and chronic inflammation, which may play an etiologic role. This study examined the association of the body mass index (BMI) and height of adolescents with NHL subtypes, which have been insufficiently evaluated. Health-related data on 2,352,988 Israeli adolescents, aged 16 to 19 years, who were examined between 1967 and 2011 were linked to the Israel National Cancer Registry to derive the NHL incidence up to December 31, 2012 (4021 cases). Cox proportional hazards modeling was used to estimate the multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for NHL subtypes associated with the BMI and height of adolescents. Adolescent overweight and obesity were associated with an HR of 1.25 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.13-1.37; P = 1.14 × 10(-5) ) for NHL in comparison with normal weight. There was a graded association of height with NHL (P = 4.29 × 10(-9) ), with the tallest adolescents (≥ 95th percentile vs 25th to < 50th percentiles [US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]) exhibiting an HR of 1.28 (95% CI, 1.04-1.56). Marginal zone lymphoma, primary cutaneous lymphoma (PCL), and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) showed the strongest associations for overweight/obesity, and DLBCL and PCL showed the strongest associations for height. The findings of this large cohort study add to the growing body of evidence showing that higher body weight and taller stature during adolescence are associated with an increased risk of NHL and may modestly contribute to its increasing incidence. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms linking anthropometric measures and NHL risk.

Sibship size and height before, during, and after the fertility decline

AbstractBACKGROUNDThere is still much to learn about the explanation for the often-found negative association between sibship size and different child outcomes. A plausible explanation is resource competition between siblings in larger families, as suggested by the resource dilution hypothesis.OBJECTIVEThis study contributes to our understanding of these mechanisms by investigating the association between sibship size and height before, during, and after the fertility decline to test predictions based on the resource dilution hypothesis.METHODSThe investigation is conducted using information from universal conscript inspections linked to a longitudinal demographic database. Regression analyses estimate a model derived from the resource dilution explanation and analyze the association between sibship size and height among men born in 1821-1950 in southern Sweden.RESULTSThe results show that the association between sibship size and height was negative from the mid-nineteenth century until the mid-twentieth century. There is no association in the early nineteenth century. The strength of the association is gradually weakened over time for men born from the 1840s until the 1940s. It is most consistent among men born from 1881-1921, corresponding closely to the time for the fertility decline in the area. The association is not a result of confounding by observable demographic or socioeconomic differences between families.CONCLUSIONSThe results are in line with resource dilution being an important explanation for the negative association between sibship size and height. Resource dilution in larger families still seems to be dependent on the societal and historical context.1. IntroductionA negative association between the number of children in a family, the sibship size, and the heights of the children has been shown many times for 20th century populations in high-income (Douglas and Simpson 1964; Olivier and Devigne 1983; Mednick et al. 1984; Lawson and Mace 2008; Suliga 2009) and low-income countries (Desai 1995; Jordan et al. 2012; Manley, Fernald, and Gertler 2012), even though no association has been found in some populations (Desai 1995). A negative association between sibship size and the children's outcomes has not only been observed with regard to height, but also, and in an even larger number of studies, with regard to the children's educational outcomes and social mobility (Blake 1981, 1985; Downey 1995, 2001; Sacerdote 2007; see also the review by Steelman et al. 2002).The association between sibship size and child outcomes is thus firmly established, at least in 20th century high-income populations. Much less is known about the mechanisms that lead to these negative associations. The most-used explanations are resource dilution in larger families and confounding. The mechanisms behind the negative associations have implications for our understanding of family dynamics and behavior, and also for our understanding of the demographic transition (e.g., Becker 1993). The presence of the associations in historical populations also has implications for, for example, unified growth theory (Galor 2012) or the theory of the technophysio evolution (Floud et al. 2011). Both theories assume that resource dilution affects child outcomes and this is the most important (Galor 2012), or one of several (Floud et al. 2011), mechanism(s) generating dynamic effects in the models.The fertility decline has also been proposed as an explanation for the secular increase in height and improving health of children from the late 19th century onwards (Reves 1985; Weir 1993; Schneider 1996; Hatton and Martin 2010a). Hatton and Martin (2010a), for example, retrospectively extrapolate based on cross-sectional data from 1930s Britain and suggest that about 25% of the increase in height should be attributed to the fertility decline. These suggestions also make it interesting to test how the association between the sibship size and the living conditions of children has developed longitudinally. …

The 2014 Danish references from birth to 20 years for height, weight and body mass index

To construct new Danish growth charts for 0- to 20-year-olds and to compare them with Danish references from 1982 and with World Health Organization (WHO) standards for children aged 0-5 years from 2006, by applying similar inclusion and exclusion criteria. Anthropometric data from three contemporary Danish population-based studies were combined. References for height were based on healthy Caucasian children born at term. A total of 12,671 height measurements (8055 in boys and 4616 in girls) were included. Reference charts were developed using the generalised additive models for location, scale and shape. From prepubertal ages, a secular increase in height was observed for both genders. The differences were most pronounced in puberty, and final heights were increased by 1.4 cm in boys and 2.9 cm in girls compared to 1982 references. In boys, but not girls an upward shift in body mass index (BMI) above median levels was found. Reference curves for height were superimposable with standard curves based on the selective WHO criteria. Danish children were longer/taller and heavier and they had larger head circumferences than those reported in the recent multiethnic WHO standards. We recommend national implementation of these contemporary 2014 Danish references for anthropometric measurements.

Growing up before growing out: secular trends in height, weight and obesity in 5–6-year-old children born between 1970 and 2006

BackgroundThis was a whole-population study of height, weight and obesity prevalence in 5–6-year-old children born between 1970 and 2006 in the Grampian region, north east Scotland.MethodsHeights and weights collected as...

Secular trends in weight, height and BMI in young Swedes: The ‘Grow up Gothenburg’ Studies

This study aims to document secular differences in anthropometry (level and variability of weight, height, BMI) in two cohorts born around 1990 and 1974 and examined as young adults. Descriptive results are presented for the complete cohorts. The final analysis age-matched the cohorts (mean, 18.8years) and employed CDC z-scores to compare means and distributions of weight, height and BMI. Z-scores for weight, height and BMI were higher in later-born (1990) boys, while in girls weight and height increased over this period without resulting in increased BMI. At the same time, in boys the BMI variances increased, confirming a simultaneous emergence of more overweight and more underweight. In girls, the BMI variance did not increase significantly. Sensitivity analyses, excluding subjects not born in Sweden, confirmed increasing BMI trends in boys. This study documents that gender differences in the recent childhood obesity epidemic can also be observed in young Swedes as they enter adulthood. Comparing two cohorts of high school students born around 1974 or 1990, less favourable trends in weight status were seen in boys than in girls. Finally, secular increases in height, already observed earlier in the 20th century, continued in these more contemporary cohorts.

Secular trends in female adult stature in relationship to gross domestic product around time of birth

Average adult height is a commonly used indicator of biological standard of living. The secular increases in height observed for many developed countries are believed to result from improved health and nutrition in early childhood. Evidence from developing countries is less thorough and consistent. We characterized the relationship between secular trends in adult female height and real gross domestic product per capita (GDP) at the time of the woman's birth by country and region using Demographic and Health Survey data and World Bank estimates. The overall change in adult height in women born between 1945 and 1980 was 0.77 cm. Average slopes differed (t=7.0, p&lt;0.001) between 23 African countries (−0.004 cm/year) and 17 other countries (0.062 cm/year). African countries also differed from non‐African countries in the relationship between adult height and GDP in early life. The relationship was nonsignificant for African countries (coefficient=−0.39 cm/lnGDP, p=0.3), but significantly positive for non‐African countries (coefficient=1.59 cm/lnGDP, p&lt;0.001). The relationship between adult female height and economic conditions is inconsistent and modified by other factors in the developing world context.

Secular Trends in Height in Different States of India in Relation to Socioeconomic Characteristics and Dietary Intakes

Information on adult height and associated secular trends in relation to socioeconomic characteristics based on a nationally representative sample is not available from India. To assess the average adult height and secular trends in height in different states of India in relation to socioeconomic characteristics and dietary intakes according to data from the Third National Family Health Survey (NFHS 3). Average heights and associated secular trends were analyzed for each state and in relation to socioeconomic variables. Bivariate and multiple regression analyses were performed to examine the association of socioeconomic factors and consumption of animal-source foods with height. Data from anthropometric measurements were available for 69,245 men and 118,796 women in the age group from 20 to 49 years. The average heights of adult men and women were 165 and 152 cm, respectively, with wide variation among states. Overall, there was a modest secular increase in height (0.50 cm per decade in men and 0.22 cm per decade in women), with a negative secular trend in some of the states. There were striking regional differences in the average heights and the secular trends in height. Similarly, higher socioeconomic status was associated with greater height and a greater secular increase in height. Milk consumption had a positive association with height in men (r = 0.69, p < .001) and women (r = 0.63, p < .001) in various/ different states. The secular increase in height has been modest in India in spite of impressive economic growth. Consumption patterns of milk in different states may be related to the regional differences in height.

Height and living standards in North Korea, 1930s–1980s

The adult stature of 6,512 North Korean refugees born from the 1930s to the 1980s was employed as an indicator of living standards in North Korea. The height of North Koreans born before the division of the Korean Peninsula exceeded that of their South Korean peers. All North Korean cohorts born thereafter were shorter than their South Korean counterparts. North Koreans did not experience a meaningful secular increase in height during 60 years of communism. A consistent and positive effect of about 1–2 cm for high educational status was found when height was regressed on birth decades, education, regional origin, and occupation.

Secular change in heights of indigenous adults from a Zapotec‐speaking community in Oaxaca, southern Mexico

Secular change in adult height of residents in a rural indigenous community in the Valley of Oaxaca was evaluated. Subjects were measured in 1971 (49 males, 26 females 19-70 years), 1978 (128 males, 124 females 19-82 years) and 2000 (155 males, 255 females 19-89 years). Heights were adjusted for estimated loss with age using two protocols; height at 21 years of age was also estimated. The effects of age and secular factors on measured and adjusted heights were evaluated through segmented linear regressions for three birth periods, <1930, 1930 through 1959 and >or=1960 which approximate significant periods in Mexican history. Secular increase in height occurred but estimated rates varied over time and between sexes. Males born before 1930 showed a secular increase in height but females did not. Adults of both sexes born 1930-1959 showed secular gains and estimated rates did not differ. The secular gain in height continued among those born 1960 and later and estimated rates were similar in both sexes. Estimated height at 21 years of age increased in males (not significant) but not in females born before 1930, showed little or no change in those born between 1930-1959, and increased (not significant) in those born 1960 and later. Combining observations on adults with those for youth in the community indicated several phases of secular change in height that varied with years of birth.

Proposed new target height equations for use in Australian growth clinics

Equations for target height estimation designed for easy use in the Australian growth clinics are presented that are based on the standard deviation score method of Hermanussen and Cole. These equations are superior to the commonly used corrected midparental height method as they account for assortative mating and regression to the mean. Simulations using different mating types were performed to compare different methods of target height estimation. While the equations relate directly to growth charts used in Australia, it is noted that neither account for the secular increase in height observed from generation to generation.

Trends in childhood height and BMI of children born 1969 – 2007 in Guatemala

We analyzed height and BMI from birth through 36 mo of children born 1969–77 (n=1507), 1985–8 (n=211), 1996–9 (n=932), and 2002–7 (n=128) in 4 villages in Guatemala. Children born 1969–77 and 1996–9 were re‐measured in adolescence. We computed Z‐scores for height‐for‐age (HAZ) and BMI‐for‐age (BMIZ) using WHO 2005 (0–5y) and 2007 (5–19y) standards. Mean HAZ at 24 mo increased from −3.2 among children born 1969–77 to −1.1 among children born 2002–7 (p&lt;0.001); HAZ at 24 mo of children born 1985–8 and 1996–9 were intermediate. Differences in HAZ were evident at birth and persisted through adolescence; children born 1969–77 had mean HAZ −2.0 at 12–19y; children born 1996–9 had mean HAZ −1.3 at 8–12y (p&lt;0.001). BMIZ increased from birth to 24 mo in all groups except children born 2002–7. BMIZ of children born 1969–77 was 0.6 at 2y, −0.7 at 12y, and −0.3 at 19y. BMIZ of children born 1996–9 was 0.3 at 2y, 0.0 at 8y and 0.2 at 12y. BMIZ at 12y was 0.84 higher (p&lt;0.001) for children born 1996–9 than for children born 1969–77. Secular increases in height result in part from increased intrauterine growth; increases in adolescent BMI suggest the potential for future increases in adult overweight and obesity.

The biological standard of living (and its convergence) in Colombia, 1870–2003: A tropical success story

During the 20th century, the evolution of the biological standard of living in Colombia was a tropical success story from the point of view of the secular increase in height as well as the reduction of inequality. During the period 1905–1985 the average height of females and males increased by nearly 9 cm on the basis of 9 million records examined from National Identification Cards. We also study the evolution of height of Colombians on the basis of passport records. The elite group of passport holders was much taller than average, and remained stable for the birth cohorts of 1870–1919. In the early 20th century the height of passport recipients was 168.7 cm (men) and 158 cm (women) compared with 162 cm and 150 cm for heights in the national ID cards. The results also show that Colombians experienced significant regional and intrapersonal convergence in height.

Opportunity for Natural Selection and Gene Flow in an Isolated Zapotec-Speaking Community in Southern Mexico in the Throes of a Secular Increase in Size

Our object in this paper is to analyze the opportunity for natural selection and gene flow in an isolated Zapotec-speaking community in the valley of Oaxaca, southern Mexico, that is undergoing a secular increase in body size. Surveys were conducted in the community in 1968, 1978, and 2000, including anthropometric and census data. No secular change was found in the growth status of schoolchildren and adult height between 1968 and 1978; subsequently, major secular gains in height occurred among children and adolescents between 1978 and 2000. The 1978 household data were used to compute gene flow (3.3%) and opportunity for selection intensity (I = 1.312). Migration and other demographic information was obtained from household census data for 1978 and 2000, and mortality information was extracted from community records and archives. These data were used to compute gene flow and opportunity for natural selection. Gene flow increased from 3.3% to 4.7% and intensity of natural selection decreased from 1.312 to 0.272 from 1978 to 2000. Variance in fertility increased slightly over time (12.25 to 13.69). Opportunity for selection was dominant during the prereproductive period in 1978, but approached 0 for the mortality component in 2000, resulting in a marked decrease in the mortality component (Im) of selection (0.626 and 0.019, respectively) and total opportunity for selection (I = 1.312 and 0.272, respectively). Secular increase in height and markedly decreased opportunity for natural selection (1) were associated with better health and nutritional conditions. Genotype-environment interaction and environmental influences are apparently the predominant causes of the secular trend. If natural selection plays a role in causing the secular trend, it is a small one.

Craniofacial dimensions in children in rural Oaxaca, Southern Mexico: Secular change, 1968–2000

The objective of this investigation was to analyze the underlying cause(s) of secular changes in craniofacial dimensions among indigenous children in an isolated community in Oaxaca, southern Mexico, between 1968-2000. Subjects were schoolchildren resident in a rural, agrarian, Zapotec-speaking community in the Valley of Oaxaca, previously characterized as mildly-to-moderately undernourished with growth-stunting in 1968 and 1978. In 2000, children had experienced a secular increase in height compared with two prior growth surveys. Four craniofacial dimensions (head length, head breadth, and bizygomatic and bigonial breadths) were measured during anthropometric surveys of schoolchildren aged 6-13 years in 1968, 1978, and 2000. Cephalic and zygomandibular indices were calculated. Samples by survey were: 1968, 151 males and 157 females; 1978, 179 males and 184 females; and 2000, 180 males and 186 females. The analysis was based on a total of 1,037 children. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used to assess secular trend effects, with height, age, and age2 as covariates by sex. Over the interval of 32 years, significant secular changes occurred in craniofacial dimensions and one index: 1) head length was shorter in boys and girls; 2) bizygomatic breadth was narrower in boys and girls; 3) head breadth increased over time only among girls; 4) brachycephalization increased significantly in a linear manner among both sexes; and 5) the zygomandibular index decreased significantly only in boys. Thus, the cranial complex remodeled to a shorter head length, both relatively (brachycephalization) and absolutely. Remodeling over time also resulted in a narrower face, with the midface changing at about the same rate as the lower face (i.e., mandible). Secular changes are generally recognized as multifactorial. Changes in the cephalic index and cranium over time in schoolchildren in an isolated rural agrarian Zapotec-speaking community in the Valley of Oaxaca suggest that the underlying forces for the secular change are associated: 1) decreased food (maize) coarseness or grit content (masticatory stress), and 2) relaxed natural selection, resulting in 3) a greater role for developmental plasticity.

Height, weight and BMI of schoolchildren in Jena, Germany—are the secular changes levelling off?

The secular trend of body height, weight and body mass index (BMI) in 7- to 14-year-old Jena schoolchildren measured in 1975, 1985, 1995 and 2001 is examined. Between 1975 and 1995, a positive trend both in height and weight is observed. In the decade 1985–1995, which includes the time of German reunification, weight shows considerably greater increases than height, resulting in an increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity. The changes in living conditions after reunification cause no remarkable intensification of the secular trend in height. After 1995, the increase in height of boys decelerates, while among girls even a decrease occurs. Girls’ weight remains approximately constant between 1995 and 2001 whereas weight among boys continues to increase. The levelling off of the secular increases in height at the end of the twentieth century may be attributed to a possible stabilisation of living conditions.