Secretary Of Defense Research Articles

Claim of Unconstitutional Discrimination Against Transgender Individuals

In Karnoski v. Trump , 926 F.3d 1180 (9th Cir. 2019), plaintiffs challenged as unconstitutional discrimination a 2017 memorandum precluding military participation by transgender individuals (additionally naming the Acting Secretary of Defense and officials of the Department of Defense and Department

JessicaTrisko DardenAiding and Abetting: U.S. Foreign Assistance and State ViolencePalo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020. 198 p. $30.00 (paper).

JessicaTrisko DardenAiding and Abetting: U.S. Foreign Assistance and State ViolencePalo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020. 198 p. $30.00 (paper).

Alliances Adrift: Is This the End of America's Asian Alliances?

Alliances Adrift: Is This the End of America's Asian Alliances?

Citizen Scientist: Frank von Hippel’s Adventures in Nuclear Arms Control

ABSTRACT This section covers von Hippel’s first engagement with nuclear-weapons issues, starting with a review of a US Secretary of Defense’s claim that a Soviet nuclear first strike on US nuclear weapons would kill only 15,000–25,000 people, through his efforts to revive the proposal for a treaty to ban the production of more plutonium and highly-enriched uranium for nuclear weapons, and ending with the beginning of a collaboration with a group of Gorbachev’s advisors to end the Cold War. It also includes his and his colleagues’ engagement in the successful effort to end the US government’s promotion of of a nuclear weapons material, plutonium, as a nuclear fuel, and a failed effort to require the doubling of the average fuel efficiency of US automobiles.

Former Defense Secretary William Perry: Why we must describe doomsday to keep it from happening

The William J. Perry Project is a nonprofit organization that the former US Defense Secretary founded in 2013 to engage and educate the public about the dangers of nuclear weapons in the 21st centu...

(Invited) A New Analysis of the Dependence of Critical Electric Field on Semiconductor Bandgap

Recently there has been much interest in wide- and ultra-wide-bandgap (WBG/UWBG) semiconductors for power conversion, radio-frequency, and other applications. The benefits of these materials for high-power devices ultimately stems from the increase in critical electric field (EC) with increasing bandgap (EG). Most researchers cite the work of Hudgins et al. [IEEE Trans Power Elec. 18, 907 (2003)] which reported that EC ~ EG 2.0 for indirect-gap materials and EC ~ EG 2.5 for direct-gap materials. These dependencies are based on empirical power-law fits to reported experimental data. The exponent in the power-law is critical when predicting the performance of power devices composed of new UWBG materials, since the Unipolar Figure-of-Merit (UFOM) scales as EC 3. This work has re-analyzed old data and also analyzed new data, and has found EC ~ EG 1.8 with no difference between direct- and indirect-gap materials. A theory that explains this dependence has also been derived and shows good agreement with the experimental data. A key point is that the critical electric field is not a constant for a given material. Rather, EC depends on temperature and doping. Further, it is defined for a triangular field distribution, i.e. a non-punch-through (NPT) drift region, not a punch-through (PT) drift region with a trapezoidal field distribution. Careful examination of the literature revealed that critical electric field values have been reported for various doping levels, and that in general no distinction between values derived from PT and NPT structures has been made. Fortunately, in most cases values have been reported at room temperature, which is taken to be standard. As such, we have derived a procedure that allows EC values to be normalized to a fixed doping (1×1016 cm-3) and a NPT field distribution. The method equates the ionization integrals for the non-standard and standard configurations and backs out the values of EC normalized to the standard configuration. Using this algorithm, normalized values of EC for a variety of semiconductors were tabulated and plotted against bandgap. These data are shown in the attached Figure, where a power-law fit yielding an exponent of 1.8 for both direct- and indirect-gap semiconductors is also shown. The conventional semiconductors Ge, Si, InP, GaAs, and GaP are all included. The narrow-gap semiconductors InSb and InAs are not included, as it is believed that breakdown in these materials may have substantial contributions from tunneling, in addition to impact ionization. GaSb is also excluded due to experimental uncertainty. The wide-bandgap semiconductors SiC and GaN are included in the analysis, although considerable debate still exists concerning the critical field of GaN. For the UWBG semiconductors such as Ga2O3, AlN, and diamond, even more uncertainty exists, and only the critical electric field of diamond has been included in the analysis, which is nevertheless subject to large uncertainty. To explain the observed experimental data, a model based on the ionization integral has been derived. In this model, the ionization integral is transformed from an integral over space into an integral over electric field. The ionization rate as a function of field is then inserted into the integral. For this, the lucky-drift model of Ridley is used [J. Phys. C 16, 3373 (1983)]. This model is an extension of the more-commonly-cited lucky electron model first proposed by Shockley. In the extended model of Ridley, elastic momentum relaxation is considered in addition to energy relaxation. The model depends on three input parameters, which are the threshold energy required for ionization (Eth), the mean carrier relaxation length (l), and the ratio of the average energy lost per collision to the threshold energy (r). These parameters all depend on bandgap, with Eth ~ EG, l ~ EG -3/2, and r ~ EG -1. Inserting these dependencies into the ionization integral and numerically extracting the electric field at which avalanche occurs for a given bandgap yields a curve of EC versus EG, which closely matches the experimental EC ~ EG dependence. This work was partially supported by the Laboratory Directed Research and Development program at Sandia National Laboratories, a multi-mission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia LLC, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc, for the U.S. Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-NA-0003525. This material is also based upon work supported by the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering under Air Force Contract No. FA8702-15-D-0001. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering. Figure 1

Demonstrating Near-Carbon-Free Electricity Generation from Renewables and Storage

Download : Download high-res image (47KB) Download : Download full-size image Dr. Marco Ferrara, co-founder of Form Energy (Somerville, MA), is a developer of commercial hardware and software for energy technologies. He holds a Ph.D. in Nuclear Engineering from MIT and a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science from University of L’Aquila, Italy. At Form Energy, he supervises market analysis, product and service development, and business development. Previously, he led research and development of electrical storage optimal configurations and control software at IHI, Inc., created the energy storage modeling software ESWare at 24M Technologies, Inc., and was a lead developer of portfolio valuation software at Edison Mission Marketing and Trading. Download : Download high-res image (66KB) Download : Download full-size image Dr. Yet-Ming Chiang, Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has published extensively in the areas of materials science, electrochemistry, and energy storage. He is a member of the United States National Academy of Engineering and a Fellow of the Materials Research Society, the American Ceramic Society, and the National Academy of Inventors. He is a recipient of the Economist’s Innovation Award (Energy and Environment Category), the Electrochemical Society’s Battery Technology Award, the Materials Research Society’s Plenary Lectureship, and the World Economic Forum’s Technology Pioneer Award. Download : Download high-res image (98KB) Download : Download full-size image Dr. John M. Deutch, Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has published extensively on physical chemistry, technology, energy, international security, and public policy. He served as Director of Energy Research (1977–1979), Acting Assistant Secretary for Energy Technology (1979), and Undersecretary (1979–1980) in the United States Department of Energy. He has also served as Director of Central Intelligence (1995–1996), as Deputy Secretary of Defense (1994–1995), as Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology (1993–1994), on the White House Science Council (1985–1989), on the President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (1997–2001), and as Secretary of Energy Advisory Board (2012–2017).

Give an Hour's Van Dahlen to lead new White House task force on suicide

The board of directors of Give an Hour, a national nonprofit that provides free mental health services to those in need, including service members, veterans, their families and other at‐risk groups, announced June 19 that the White House, in partnership with the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), has appointed Barbara Van Dahlen, Ph.D., to lead the PREVENTS (President's Roadmap to Empower Veterans and End National Tragedy of Suicide) Task Force. The task force was created by President Donald Trump's executive order signed earlier this year, a press release stated. The PREVENTS Task Force will create a comprehensive national “Roadmap” that will weave together efforts by the federal government with state, regional, business, nonprofit, faith‐based, academic and community efforts. The task force will be co‐chaired by the secretary of the VA and the assistant to the president for domestic policy. Eight cabinet members will also be involved, including the secretaries of Defense, Homeland Security and Health and Human Services, as well as top officials from other key government entities, such as the Office of Management and Budget and National Security Affairs.

When the center held: Gerald Ford and the rescue of the American presidency

President Gerald R. Ford spent just under 900 days in the White House, not much below Kennedy's 1,000 days. Yet the Ford presidency, unelected to office, is frequently skipped over in US surveys of foreign policy, foreign relations or history; it is frequently treated as an appendix to the Nixon years. The fact that Kissinger stayed on as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State for a part of the new presidency also lends a narrative of continuity. But Ford did carve out a presidency of his own and gained a more self-assured voice in foreign affairs as time went on. A constant theme plays on the ‘decency’ of Ford, an old-fashioned, unpretentious, honest, straight-laced character from Michigan—as though all people from that region held such characteristics. (Rumsfeld served him in many ways, culminating as the youngest Secretary of Defense (1975–7); he eventually became one of the oldest in the George W. Bush administration (2001–2006).) Rumsfeld's concluding reflections build on this sense of decency: ‘Knowing Gerald Ford's dedication firsthand made the 1976 presidential campaign season especially tough for me. Gerald Ford was a good man who deserved to be elected President in his own right’. He had worked hard to get his ‘country back on the right track and restoring the faith of its people’. He earned people's trust, led the United States in its post-Vietnam, post-Watergate hour of need, ‘and once again, the center held’ (p. 273). Rumsfeld's memoir is welcome as a study of a much-neglected Ford, though for those acquainted with the period or the presidency, there is little new.

‘We Can Get a Coup’: Warren Nutter and the Overthrow of Salvador Allende

In 1969, Warren Nutter left the University of Virginia Department of Economics to serve as the Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs in the Nixon administration. During his time in the Defense Department, Nutter was deeply involved in laying the groundwork for a military coup against the democratically elected president of Chile, Salvador Allende. Although Nutter left the Pentagon several months before the successful 1973 coup, his role in Chile was far more direct than the better-known cases of Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, James Buchanan, and Arnold Harberger. This chapter describes Nutter’s role in Chile policymaking in the Nixon administration. It shows how Nutter’s criticisms of Henry Kissinger are grounded in his economics, and compares and contrasts Nutter with other economists who have been connected to Pinochet’s dictatorship.

Why Trump is Right to Pull American Troops from Syria

On December 19, 2018, President Donald Trump called for a “full” and “rapid” withdrawal of U.S. forces from the Syrian civil war, declaring on Twitter: “We have defeated ISIS in Syria, my only reason for being there.” This decision was in line with his campaign promise to bring American forces home from a messy and prolonged entanglement in the Middle East. Nonetheless, it set off a flurry of responses, beginning with General James Mattis’ subsequent resignation as Secretary of Defense. The Washington establishment reacted to these announcements in a typical fashion, condemning Trump’s decision and expressing shock over Mattis’ resignation. Senator Mark Warner (D-VA) declared: “This is scary. Secretary Mattis has been an island of stability amidst the chaos of the Trump administration.” Senator Lindsay Graham called the decision an “Obama-like mistake” and a “big win for ISIS, Iran, Bashar al Assad…and Russia.” Scholars from the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, the Atlantic Council, the Council on Foreign Relations, and the Center for a New American Security echoed that sentiment.

The Effects of a Low Glutamate Dietary Intervention on Anxiety and PTSD in Veterans with Gulf War Illness (FS15-08-19)

ObjectivesGlutamate is an amino acid and also serves as the most ubiquitous neurotransmitter in the human body. Previous work has shown that dysregulated glutamatergic neurotransmission is implicated in the etiology of anxiety disorders.Objective: To examine the effect of a low glutamate dietary intervention on anxiety and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in veterans with Gulf War Illness (GWI). MethodsForty veterans with GWI are being recruited for a randomized-controlled clinical trial testing the effects of a low glutamate diet on neurological symptoms. After consent, subjects complete baseline measures, then subjects are randomized to the low-glutamate diet or a wait-listed control group. For the active intervention phase, they follow a 1-month low glutamate diet and then are re-tested prior to entering a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover challenge with monosodium glutamate (MSG) or placebo, to test for return of symptoms. Preliminary data are presented here for changes observed on the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7) scale and the PTSD Checklist (PCL-C) after one month on the diet in subjects recruited to date. Pre-post diet scores were compared for anxiety and PTSD using a Wilcoxon Signed Rank test in SAS. ResultsSeventeen veterans (M = 15; F = 2) with GWI have been recruited to date (mean age = 50 ± 4 yrs). Preliminary analyses demonstrate that after one month on the diet, significant improvements were noted for anxiety (score reduced from a median (IQ range) of 9 (13) to 5 (10), p = 0.01) and for PTSD (median (IQ) score reduced from 58 (33) to 43 (28), p = 0.04). ConclusionsThis study suggests that consuming a low glutamate diet may improve anxiety and PTSD in veterans suffering from Gulf War Illness. More research is needed to further explore the role of dietary glutamate in anxiety disorders. Funding SourcesU.S. Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity, 820 Chandler Street, Fort Detrick MD 21702-5014 is the awarding and administering acquisition office. This work was supported by the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs, through the Gulf War Illness Research Program under Award No. W81XWH-17-1-0457. Opinions, interpretations, conclusions and recommendations are those of the author and are not necessarily endorsed by the Department of Defense.

Data Science, Analytics and Collaboration for a Biosurveillance Ecosystem

Data Science, Analytics and Collaboration for a Biosurveillance Ecosystem

James Schlesinger’s lifelong creed of public service and the Schlesinger doctrine

In 1973, at the age of 44 and the height of the Cold War, James Schlesinger was confirmed as the 12th U.S. Secretary of Defense. While serving as Defense Secretary, Dr. Schlesinger implemented important nuclear policy developments designed to strengthen the deterrence of war and the assurance of allies. His 1974 adjustments to U.S. nuclear policy, known as the Schlesinger Doctrine or the Schlesinger Shift. The Schlesinger Doctrine advanced the basic parameters of U.S. nuclear deterrence policy that contributed to the peaceful ending of the Cold War and have remained constant across Republican and Democratic administrations to the present. It is hard to conceive of a more significant defense-policy legacy.

From Byron to Bin Laden: a history of foreign war volunteers

‘Our intention is that the foreign fighters do not survive the fight to return home’. So said James Mattis, the former US Defence Secretary (p. 228). At times, nations have tried to prevent the phenomenon of foreign volunteering. In Britain and elsewhere, there has been legislation over the past three centuries, but it has been selectively used. Even today, there is a distinct difference between how the state and the public view British nationals who help the Kurdish militia compared to those who fight for the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). This is a highly topical book as we contemplate the return of Islamist fighters following Islamic State's defeat in Syria. It is also meticulously researched. Nir Arielli has drawn on a wealth of source material to look at the phenomenon of ‘foreign fighters’ from every conceivable angle. The Spanish Civil War features, as does the Winter War in Finland, the 1948 campaign in Palestine, the unification of Italy, Bolivar's war of independence in South America, the Greek struggle against the Ottoman empire, the pan-Slavist conflicts of the nineteenth century, the Balkan imbroglio of the 1990s, the Afghan jihad against the Soviet Union, as well as the Crusades and the Napoleonic Wars.

Single Prolonged Stress as a Prospective Model for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Females

BackgroundSex plays an important role in susceptibility to stress triggered disorders. Posttraumatic Stress disorder (PTSD), a debilitating psychiatric disorder developed after exposure to a traumatic event, is two times more prevalent in women than men. However, the vast majority of animal models of PTSD, including single prolonged stress (SPS), were performed mostly with males.Objectives(1) Evaluate SPS as an appropriate model for PTSD in female rodents in terms of anxiety, depressive symptoms and changes of gene expression in the locus coeruleus; (2) Asses sex differences in SPS‐triggered changes in these measures; (3) Examine intranasal NPY as a potential early intervention for females.MethodsFemale rats were subjected to SPS and given either intranasal NPY or vehicle. Twelve and seven days later they were compared to unstressed controls on forced swim test (FST) and elevated plus maze (EPM) respectively. Changes in gene expression in the locus coeruleus (LC) were determined by quantitative RT‐PCR.Results and InterpretationSPS led to increased anxiety‐like behavior on EPM, and tended to raise depressive‐like behavior on FST. Following FST rats displayed elevated TH, CRHR1 and Y1R mRNA levels in the LC, consistent with increased activation of the noradrenergic system.The expression level of these mRNAs were unchanged following EPM. Intranasal NPY at the doses shown to be effective in males, did not prevent development of depressive or anxiety‐like behavior or molecular changes in the LC. SPS may be milder for females when compared to males, as they did not show despair or immobility as readily as males on the forced swim component of the SPS protocols. In addition, after SPS stressors females exhibited less immobility on FST than males, however there were little overall sex differences in anxiety‐like behavior on EPM.ConclusionsThe results indicate that while SPS could be an appropriate PTSD model for females, there are important sex differences, such as response to NPY, that need to be taken into account.Support or Funding InformationThis work was supported by the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs through the DOD Department of Defense Broad Agency Announcement for Extramural Medical Research under Award No W81XWH‐16‐1‐0016 and by funds from the NYMC/Touro Bridge Funding Program.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

A Brief Overview of the Foreign Policy Decision Making Team in the Reagan Administration

This article describes the Reagan Administration and its key figures dealing with foreign policy, their personalities, interaction with each other, and impact on the overall foreignpolicy decision making. The Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, National Security Advisor, and Director of the Central Intelligence Agency played key roles in formulatingand implementing the foreign policy in the Reagan years. President Reagan entered the White House without a clear foreign policy strategy, but determined to move foreign policyadvising out of the White House and back to the State Department while at the same time keeping overall control of foreign policy decision making in the NSC.Keywords: Administration, foreign policy decision-making, Reagan, Shultz, Weinberger

The UK’s Defence Arctic Strategy

Following the UK defence secretary’s announcement in September 2018 that the Ministry of Defence is to devise a Defence Arctic Strategy, Duncan Depledge, Klaus Dodds and Caroline Kennedy-Pipe look back on how UK defence has engaged with the Arctic over the past two decades and draw attention to the shift in focus from climate change to hard security threats. They analyse what this means for the development of national Arctic policy in general, including the potential for divergence with other stakeholders such as the Foreign Office and the Scottish government. They conclude by considering how UK Arctic policy might change after Brexit.

Optimal Human Resources Allocation in Counter-Terrorism (CT) Operation: A Mathematical Deterministic Model

The quest to find a long-term solution to the world’s insecurity problems and perhaps, terrorism in particular, has climaxed sincethe bombing of the World Trade Centre, the USA in September 11th, 2001 by the Al-Qaeda terrorist group. In the last decades, anumber of research scholars have developed methodologies from system sciences that attempt to describe and model the behavior of a terrorist group. But their findings tend to converged on a rather intimidating and mind-bugging conclusion. Hence the US Secretary of Defense - Donald Rumsfeld once declared “today we lack relevant metrics to know if we are winning or losing the global war on terror”. The present study seeks to construct an analytical model of terrorism to study the possible strategies for allocating given counter-terrorism (CT) resource toward a long-term solution of a given terrorist group. The construct is a simple deterministic model of a terrorist evolutional dynamics, represented by a set of coupled differential equations whose variables are parameters of the internal and external dynamics of the organization. Analytical and numerical simulation techniques are used to study the solution paths of the system of differential equations obtained. By examining the evolutional dynamics of the terrorist operatives under five interdiction strategies, the result shows that, since the evolutional dynamics of most terrorist organization is driven by recruitment process, then any strategy that is capable of maintaining a constant high rate of interdiction of the footsoldiers and the leaders simultaneously, would eventually guarantee a maximum decline in the overall strength of the organization, and as well as engenders a maximum decline in even in the recruiter’s pool. Such a strategy has the synergy to weaken the overall terrorists’ strength and drive the organization to extinction in the long runs; thus, yielding a comparatively more effective and efficient CT measure than otherwise. For our modeled organization, the interdiction strategy targeted simultaneously at the leaders and foot-soldiers classes, though comparatively cost effective than otherwise and evolved a highly vulnerable strength, yet the propensity to drive the organization to long term inactivity is comparatively low, given the positive exponential growth curves of its strength. The study agreed “that through terror war of attrition may be problematic and costintensive, however, increasing interdiction accuracy is the best-case scenario for ideal CT measures”. Thus, to guarantee interdiction accuracy, sufficient and credible intelligence for smart-targeting of insurgent locations is a panacea. Given theveracity of our model, it is possible to evaluate the efficacy of the various CT policies of the government and hence measure thedegree of success or failure of a given CT measure.

Omar Nelson Bradley: America's GI General, 1893–1981 by Steven L. Ossad

Reviewed by: Omar Nelson Bradley: America's GI General, 1893–1981 by Steven L. Ossad Adrian R. Lewis OMAR NELSON BRADLEY: America's GI General, 1893–1981. By Steven L. Ossad. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2017. The purpose of this book is to bring new light to the life of Five Star General Omar Bradley and to revise the traditional narrative of his life. Ossad observed that: "Omar Bradley has for too long been relegated to the shadows cast by his larger than life contemporaries or has been explained away as an example of a nice guy who made it to the top through hard work. That perception is not only wrong, it does a disservice to Bradley and those who can still learn from his example (16)." Ossad believes the story of Bradley's life has been dwarfed by that of Eisenhower and Patton. He seeks to provide a more complex, a more nuanced portrait of the man who commanded the largest operational command ever assembled by the United States, the 12th Army Group, and led in the biggest campaign ever fought by the U.S. Army, the Battle of the Bulge. This book is, in part, a study of command. Steven Ossad is a military historian and biographer. He coauthored, Major General Maurice Rose: World War II's Greatest Forgotten Commander. He has also published articles in military history journals. Ossad's book divides Bradley's life into three parts. Part I, "Becoming a Commander," chapter 1 through 5, covers Bradley's early life, life at West Point, assignments as an officer, learning the trade of soldier in the U.S. Army, Corps Command in North Africa, and the invasion of and campaign in Sicily. Part II, "The Liberation," chapters 6 through 10, covers the Normandy invasion, the breakout at St. Lo, the advance across France, the Battle of the Bulge, and the final victory in Europe. Part III, "Shaper of the Post War World," chapters 11 and 12, cover the post-war period, head of the Veterans Administration, the emergence of Cold War, service as the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Korean War, and retirement. Part I is the most original part of the book. In it Ossad developed a character analysis, which portrays Bradley as a man incapable of admitting his mistakes, incapable of admitting he was wrong. While identifying character flaws, Ossad's overall appraisal of Bradley is positive. He believes the General has been overlooked and under-appreciated for his many contributions and accomplishments. Part II, the war in Europe follows traditional assessments. Operation Cobra has been viewed as Bradley's most brilliant act of generalship, and the Battle of Bulge, where U.S. forces were surprised by the size and ferocity of the German counterattack, has not been considered Bradley's finest hour. Part III is the most problematic. There are errors in the book. For example, on page 368, Ossad wrote: "The new act [National Security Act of 1947] replaced the short lived National Military Establishment with new institutions, the most important being the Department of Defense." This is not accurate. The 1947 act created the National Military Establishment, and the 1949 amendment created the Department of Defense. (See: The Department of Defense: Documents on Establishment and Organization, 1944–1978, edited, Alice C. Cole, et al, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Historical Office, 1978, p. 63, 84). On page 382, Ossad wrote: "Secretary of Defense George Marshall agreed [End Page 117] not only that his old advisory had opposed administration policies but that his failure to clear his 24 March 1951 statement with the President and the intended violation of the December order were grounds for dismissal." In a "Memorandum for the Record," dated 25 April 1951, prepared by General Bradley, it states: "Secretary Acheson and Mr. Harriman thought he [General MacArthur] should be relieved at once. General Marshall and I recommended against such action." Both Marshall and Bradley ultimately supported the relief, but both had to be convinced. There are also problems of interpretation. On the desegregation of the Army, Ossad wrote: "By the end of 1953, when he left office, only 5...