Secondary Transfer Effect Research Articles

The ups and downs of online intergroup contact interventions: popular narratives and secondary transfer effect

The ups and downs of online intergroup contact interventions: popular narratives and secondary transfer effect

Toxicity of isocycloseram, an isoxazoline insecticide, against laboratory and field-collected German cockroaches (Blattodea: Ectobiidae).

Isocycloseram is a new insecticide in the isoxazoline class that targets insect GABA-gated chloride channels. In this study, we evaluated a cockroach gel bait formulation containing 1% isocycloseram against a susceptible strain (UCR) and 5 field-collected strains (WM, RG386, Ryan, CDR, and SY) of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae), and compared it with several commercial insecticide baits in the laboratory. Using the Ebeling choice box method, we also tested a residual deposit of an SC formulation of isocycloseram against the UCR, RG386, and Ryan strains. The isocycloseram bait was among the fastest-performing treatments against adult males (mean survival time: 0.9-2.7 days) and mixed stages and sexes (mean survival time: 1.4-5.4 days) across all strains. Secondary transfer effects of the bait were demonstrated in the UCR strain by exposing new adult males to individuals killed by direct bait treatment. Physiological resistance was not detected in the WM, CDR, and RG386 strains with topical treatment of a diagnostic dose (3× LD95) of isocycloseram developed using the UCR strain. However, topical assays revealed resistance ratios (RR50) of 1.6 and 3.0× in the Ryan and SY strains, respectively. The performance of a 0.05% isocycloseram residual application against the Ryan strain was improved with the addition of piperonyl butoxide.

The secondary transfer effects of contact in facilitating peace in a frozen conflict: The case of Turkish immigrants in Cyprus

AbstractThe present research focuses on the secondary transfer effect of contact, a relatively less researched dimension of intergroup contact, on reconciliation in the context of one of the most intractable and longest surviving interethnic conflicts in Europe, the Cyprus conflict. Currently, Cyprus is home to three groups with differential social, economic and political statuses: (1) disadvantaged low‐status Turkish immigrants, (2) simultaneously advantaged (relative to Turkish immigrants) and disadvantaged (relative to Greek Cypriots) Turkish Cypriots and (3) historically advantaged high‐status Greek Cypriots. Across two studies (Study 1 N = 270 and Study 2 N = 501), we test whether and how Turkish immigrants’ contact with Turkish Cypriots shapes Turkish immigrants' support for reconciliation and willingness to live with Greek Cypriots via attitude generalisation. We also investigate whether Turkish immigrants’ perceived ingroup reputation qualifies this process. Controlling for the effects of direct contact with Greek Cypriots, our results show that both quantity and quality of contact with proximal Turkish Cypriots were indirectly associated with greater support for reconciliation with them and more willingness to live with Greek Cypriots via positive attitudes towards the primary (Turkish Cypriots) and positive attitudes towards the secondary (Greek Cypriots), sequentially. Moreover, we found that the perceived higher ingroup reputation across the island positively moderated the indirect effects of primary group contact on support for reconciliation and willingness to live with Greek Cypriots. That is, more contact with the primary outgroup was positively linked to greater support for reconciliation with the distal secondary outgroup Greek Cypriots when perceptions of ingroup reputation were higher.

Tertiary transfer effect (TTE) of contact with sexual minorities in a sample of Colombian heterosexual and gay participants

AbstractContact with sexually diverse people predicts attitude transformation towards the whole group membership (i.e., the primary transfer effect) and may potentially generalize to other group memberships (i.e., The secondary transfer effect). However, the effect of contact may extend beyond this known attitudinal transformation, comprising also cognitive growth and likely impact other types of psychological outcomes or Tertiary Transfer Effect (TTE). This study used a cross‐sectional design with a convenient sample of respondents of gay (N = 320) and heterosexual (N = 320) sexual orientation to test whether the relationship between contact with sexual minorities and well‐being was accounted for by positive stereotype content and cognitive flexibility. Mediation analyses corroborated a small but significant indirect effect of positive stereotype content and cognitive flexibility sequentially, within the relationship between contact and well‐being, both in heterosexual and gay participants. Thus, partially supporting the hypothesized TTE of contact in this sample. The study of TTE is still in its infancy, future research would benefit from exploring the effect of contact as a promising tool to promote psychological well‐being in both parts involved within the social exchange. It may be profitable for anti‐prejudice efforts to incorporate this generalization principle to expand the reach of inclusion programs targeting sexual minorities.

A longitudinal test of secondary transfer effects of negative intergroup contact and mediating processes

AbstractPositive intergroup contact has not only been shown to be positively associated with favourable attitudes towards members of the contacted group but also with attitudes towards members of secondary outgroups (secondary transfer effect, STE). Only a few studies have addressed a potential STE of negative intergroup contact (i.e., a generalization of negative contact experiences to secondary outgroups). Furthermore, longitudinal studies on STEs and on underlying mediation processes are lacking. In the present research, we investigated the existence of a STE for negative (and positive) intergroup contact in four longitudinal samples with three (Studies 1a and 1b) and two waves (Studies 2 and 3; Noverall = 2052, time lags between waves 2 to 12 months). Our studies did not provide robust evidence for a STE of negative (and positive) contact, nor for indirect STEs via attitude generalization, ingroup identification or diversity beliefs. We discuss implications and suggest avenues for future research.

Fringe benefits: secondary transfer effects of lesbian, gay, and bisexual contact on transgender prejudice

Fringe benefits: secondary transfer effects of lesbian, gay, and bisexual contact on transgender prejudice

Teacher attitudes toward lesbian, gay, and bisexual students: Evidence for intergroup contact theory and secondary transfer effects

This article presents two studies that tested the predictive validity of intergroup contact theory and secondary transfer effects related to pre-service teacher attitudes toward sexual minority youth in classrooms. Multiple regression of feeling thermometer scores in Study 1 (N = 989) suggested that more favorable attitudes are present among younger, female, bisexual or homosexual, less religious, politically left-wing pre-service teachers with lesbian, gay, and bisexual contacts. Associations with family membership and hometown size were nonsignificant. Analyses of variance in Study 2 (N = 406) showed statistically significant secondary transfer effects. For instance, teacher candidates with no lesbian women contacts showed less sexual prejudice toward lesbian students if they were in social contact with gay men and bisexual people. Implications for teacher education, teacher professionalism, and the need to create safe spaces in school for LGBTQIA+ students are discussed.

Generalizing from negative contact: The causal sequence problem and proposed mechanisms of (negative) secondary transfer effects

The secondary transfer effect (STE) describes how contact with one outgroup (the so-called ‘primary outgroup’) can affect evaluations of another outgroup (the so-called ‘secondary outgroup’), that was uninvolved in the contact scenario. This research is about the transfer of negative contact. There are only few studies on the STE from negative contact available and even less longitudinal ones. We conducted such a longitudinal study, utilizing data from the GESIS-Panel, (N = 390; 3 survey waves). We investigated negative STE in an understudied intergroup context: forced migration. The primary outgroup was comprised of ‘foreigners’, living in Germany, the secondary outgroup were ‘refugees.’ We investigated three mechanisms by which negative STE might occur: firstly, contact might affect the primary outgroup attitude, which then affects the secondary outgroup attitude – a mechanism termed ‘attitude generalization.’ Secondly contact might be mediated by the general acceptance of diversity and thereby evaluations of outgroups associated with cultural diversity – a mechanism termed ‘multiculturalism.’ Lastly, contact might affect the perceived threat posed by the primary outgroup, and consequentially evaluations of secondary outgroups – a mechanism that we term ‘primary outgroup threat.’ Applying a cross-lagged panel mediation model, we investigated these theorized mechanisms. Negative STE emerged directly and also indirectly via ‘attitude generalization’ and ‘multiculturalism’ – findings congruent with previous cross-sectional research. Contrary to previous research no indirect effect via ‘primary outgroup threat’ emerged. Our results provide additional empirical evidence for negative STE. They further indicate that negative- and positive STE might operate via similar mechanisms.

Solidarity across group lines: Secondary transfer effect of intergroup contact, perceived moral distance, and collective action

AbstractWe tested, in three studies, whether the generalization of contact effects from primary to secondary outgroups—the secondary transfer effect (STE)—occurs for collective action. The results supported a serial mediation model: contact with immigrants by advantaged group members (Italians: Study 1, N = 146, 121 females, Mage = 28.31 years; Study 3, N = 406, 239 females, Mage = 36.35; British people, Study 2, N = 160, 113 females, Mage = 32.31) was associated with lower perceived moral distance toward primary outgroups, which in turn was associated with more positive attitudes and greater collective action intentions toward primary outgroups, and lower perceived moral distance toward secondary outgroups. Lower perceived moral distance toward secondary outgroups and stronger collective action intentions toward the primary outgroup were associated with higher collective action intentions toward secondary outgroups (results were inconsistent for attitudes). We discuss the findings with a focus on how a consideration of perceived moral distance extends current theorizing, and the relevance of generalized prejudice for the STE.

Contact with former adversaries through mass‐media is linked to forgiveness after dyadic and multi‐ethnic conflicts

AbstractFour correlational studies (NAlbanians = 232, NSerbs = 129, NBosniaks = 147, NCroats = 367) and one experimental study (NBosniaks = 682), investigated the link between mass‐mediated contact (i.e., information about former adversaries from the mass media) and forgiveness towards former adversaries in post‐conflict societies. Specifically, we tested the association between positive and negative mass‐mediated contact with one former adversary and forgiveness towards this former adversary (i.e., a primary transfer effect, Studies 1–4) and another former adversary (i.e., a secondary transfer effect, Studies 2–4). Positive mass‐mediated contact with one former adversary was linked to greater forgiveness towards that former adversary and another former adversary. Intergroup trust mediated the primary transfer effect of positive mass‐mediated contact, whereas generalization of trust and forgiveness from one former adversary to another mediated the secondary transfer effect. Our results underline the important role of positive but not negative mass‐mediated contact with former adversaries in reconciliation.

The negative secondary transfer effect: Comparing proposed mediation theories

The secondary transfer effect proposes that contact with an outgroup impacts attitudes towards another, secondary outgroup. For positive contact, three pathways have been identified for the effect: attitude generalization, multiculturalism, and ingroup reappraisal (deprovincialization hypothesis, operationalized here as national pride). Research on negative secondary transfer effects is still scarce. Using data from a German nationally representative survey, we investigated negative secondary transfer effects from foreigners to refugees. The three pathways were compared while considering positive and refugee contact. Negative and positive secondary transfer effects both occurred (partially) mediated via attitude generalization and multiculturalism but not via national pride. We conclude there might be a risk of generalizing prejudice from unrelated negative experiences via these two mechanisms. Research on forced migration and intergroup contact should further explore them with the ultimate goal of preventing negative secondary transfer effects. Longitudinal or experimental research is needed to address causality, ideally involving various outgroups.

The Benefits of Buddies: Strategically Pairing Preschoolers with Other-Gender Classmates Promotes Positive Peer Interactions

ABSTRACT Research Findings: We tested whether a universal classroom peer pairing intervention – Buddy Up – would strengthen dyadic peer interactions among preschoolers (N = 140; M age = 56.49 months; 53.6% boys; 77.9% Latinx). The Buddy Up intervention was informed by Intergroup Contact Theory, which specifies the benefits of exposure to heterogeneous others. Teachers buddied children with other-gender peers. We hypothesized positive intervention effects on the quality of dyadic interactions overall and for other-gender interactions specifically. We also considered whether the effects would generalize (secondary transfer effects) to interactions with other-language peers (English and Spanish). Using a quasi-experimental design, we found intervention effects on improved peer interactions overall and for other-gender dyads. There was little evidence of improved interactions for other-language dyads. Same-gender dyads (notably girl-girl dyads) and same-language dyads (notably English-speaking dyads) also responded positively to the intervention. The use of dyadic peer interaction data during preschool represents an innovative feature of this study. Practice or Policy: Buddy Up facilitated positive peer interactions. This is a key building block through which social skills are built and friendships can grow. The findings suggest that early childhood teachers can successfully support students in developing relationships with peers.

A Rewiew on the Secondary Transfer Effect of Intergroup Contact

Research showed that intergroup contact could increase social cohesion with many positive changes such as improved positive attitudes and trust as well as a decreased threat towards the groups in contact. However, faceto- face contact may be impossible in societies where intergroup conflicts are prevalent and groups are ethnically, racially, and religiously segregated. In such societies, the indirect and transferable effects of contact can be an opportunity to benefit from the positive effects of contact. One of the transferable effects of contact is the secondary transfer effect. The secondary transfer effect (STE) refers to the generalisation of the effects of intergroup contact from the encountered outgroup to outgroups that do not involve in the contact situation. Therefore, it is a promising and effective strategy for prejudice reduction, particularly in ethnically, racially, and religiously segregated societies. In this article, we aim to review the STE literature and extend previous reviews by focusing on the problems in the STE. We first review evidence on the STE of positive versus negative contact, and then we highlight the relevant underlying mechanism of the phenomenon, i.e., mediators and moderators of the STE. Third, we underline the problems that may limit the robustness of the phenomenon and the research gap in the STE literature. Finally, in line with the current issues with the theory, research and practice, we present suggestions for future research.

Support for rights of Syrian refugees in Turkey: The role of secondary transfer effects in intergroup contact

AbstractThis study explored the role of secondary transfer effects (STEs) to test whether and how contact between advantaged Turks and disadvantaged Kurds may shape support for the rights of Syrian refugees. We investigated whether dimensions of contact, positive versus negative, between a historically advantaged group (Turks, n = 300) and a disadvantaged group (Kurds, n = 127), extend to a novel disadvantaged outgroup (Syrian refugees) via attitude generalization and as a function of the perceived threat from the novel outgroup. Controlling for the effects of contact with Syrian refugees, findings show that both positive and negative contacts with the primary outgroups are associated with support for policies benefiting the secondary outgroup, Syrian refugees, but these associations are moderated by perceived threats posed by the secondary outgroup. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research on secondary transfer processes of contact and for research on multiple group contexts. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.

The generalization of intergroup contact effects: Emerging research, policy relevance, and future directions

AbstractIntergroup contact is one of the most promising and effective strategies for reducing prejudice. Importantly, intergroup contact not only improves attitudes towards an encountered outgroup member but also to the outgroup as a whole (i.e., primary transfer effects), to other outgroups (i.e., secondary transfer effects), and even enhances cognitive functioning beyond intergroup relations (i.e., tertiary transfer effect). In this article, we first review the recent developments on primary, secondary, and tertiary contact generalization. We then summarize mechanisms that underlie and condition each of these generalizations. Third, we highlight key critiques against the contact literature identifying avenues for future research on generalization processes. Lastly, we underline the policy value of research on generalization effects.

Reducing prejudice in the society at large: A review of the secondary transfer effect and directions for future research

AbstractThe secondary transfer effect (STE) constitutes the generalization of the effects of intergroup contact from the outgroup one has contact with to uninvolved outgroups. In this article, we provide a review of the research on the STE. After presenting evidence on the robustness of the phenomenon, we discuss relevant mediating processes and outline a model that distinguishes them in three categories: mediators referring to the outgroup, mediators referring to the ingroup, and mediators referring to the self. We then present moderators of the STE, and recent evidence of the STE from indirect contact (extended, vicarious, and imagined contact) and from negative contact. By relying on our distinction in three sets of mediators, we suggest directions for future research, largely pointing to the importance of integrating the STE with research on generalized prejudice and of exploring contact as an agent of cognitive liberalization.

Pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward transgender students: Associations with social contact, religiosity, political preference, sexual orientation, and teacher gender

Pre-service teachers can become important allies for trans children and adolescents at school, yet little is known about their attitudes toward transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) students. Based on intergroup contact theory and the secondary transfer effect, analyses of variance of feeling thermometer scores obtained from 560 teacher candidates revealed that attitudes were more positive for teachers with prior contact, close trans friends, and trans family members. Transgender attitudes were also more favorable if teachers were female, less religious, and had a left-wing political preference. Heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual teachers differed non-significantly. Implications for teacher education include increasing the attitudes of (particularly) male teacher candidates and promoting social contact by inviting trans individuals to share their experiences in the classroom.

Conditional secondary transfer effect: The moderating role of moral credentials and prejudice

This survey experiment examined the role of prejudice and moral licensing as two moderators of the secondary transfer effect (STE) of positive and negative intergroup contact. We collected a quota-randomized sample of 299 majority Finns (52.6% female; experimental condition: n = 118, control condition: n = 181) in order to test whether moral credentials prevent attitude generalization (from primary towards secondary outgroup), particularly among prejudiced individuals. The results showed that STEs of both positive and negative contact were prevented among more prejudiced majority group members who had the possibility to obtain moral credentials in the moral licensing task. These results point at the unstable nature of attitude generalization in STE among prejudiced individuals and at the potential of a normative moral act to intervene into the generalization of intergroup attitudes following intergroup contact. We discuss these findings in relation to the literature on moral licensing and moral reinforcement, framing them in the context of an integration of contact research and research on morality in general.

Multicultural Experiences and the Secondary Transfer Effect of Intercultural Attitudes

Abstract. This research investigates whether multicultural experiences (MCEs) (1) improve attitudes toward primary outgroups, (2) improve attitudes toward secondary outgroups (the “secondary transfer effect”) – depending on the perceived similarity versus dissimilarity of the target group, and (3) affect ingroup reappraisal. The deprovincialization and attitude generalization hypotheses were also investigated as underlying mechanisms. A meta-analysis of effects across studies ( N = 633) revealed MCEs (1) improve primary attitudes ( r = .19), (2) improve, albeit more weakly, similar secondary attitudes ( r = .10), but have no significant effect on dissimilar secondary attitudes ( r = .07); (3) have no effect on ingroup reappraisal ( r = .04), and (4) only improve secondary attitudes through attitude generalization. Contributions, limitations, and emerging questions regarding deprovincialization are discussed.

Is negative the new positive? Secondary transfer effect of exposure to LGBT portrayals in TV entertainment programs

AbstractThis study investigates the primary effect of positive, neutral, and negative exposure to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) TV portrayals in entertainment programs on attitudes toward the LGBT community and the Secondary Transfer Effect (STE) of such exposure on attitudes toward people with Asperger's Disorder (the secondary out‐group), controlling for face‐to‐face and online contacts with both out‐groups. Research was conducted using a mixed methods approach. Quantitative Study 1 used an online survey of 716 Israeli Jews, to investigate primary and secondary effects of TV exposure to LGBT portrayals. The positive primary effect of TV exposure was shown—regardless of LGBT portrayals perceived as positive, neutral, or negative. STE of TV exposure to neutral and negative LGBT portrayals is likely to diminish social distance to people with Asperger's Disorder, while no STE was found with positive LGBT portrayals. Full mediation effect of attitudes toward the LGBT community was found. Qualitative Study 2, based on 52 in‐depth interviews, was conducted in order to reveal the hidden mechanisms of these effects, examining the parasocial experience and its interpretations by the viewers. According to qualitative findings, the positive primary and secondary effects of negative exposure may be explained by varied interpretations of gay portrayals on TV by different people depending on social background and life experience, opposite reaction on stereotypical gay portrayals on TV, and asymmetrical negative‐positive heuristic. Given the important role of TV in fostering more positive intergroup relations, this research revealed sources of prejudice reduction and increase in tolerance toward “others” for society at large.