Secondary Sexual Development Research Articles

Proximate Composition, Reproductive Development, and a Test for Trade-Offs in Captive Sockeye Salmon

Abstract Energy limitations during reproduction should lead to the evolution of adaptive patterns of energy use and should cause trade-offs in the expression of different traits. We addressed these issues by measuring secondary sexual development, gonad investment, and proximate composition for sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka maturing in captivity. Each of the last 3 months before maturity was characterized by a different pattern of reproductive development and energy use. From June to July, gonad mass increased (1.1% to 5.2% of male body mass; from 1.3% to 2.7% of female body mass), muscle fat decreased (15.1% to 8.6% sex-specific values averaged), and viscera fat decreased (23.9% to 16.7%). From July to August, male gonad mass did not change appreciably, but female gonad mass nearly doubled (to 5.5% of body mass). Muscle fat and viscera fat continued to decrease (to 6.0% and 8.8%, respectively), but muscle protein remained relatively constant. From August to maturity (September–October), female gonad ...

Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome: long-term medical, surgical, and psychosexual outcome.

Controversy concerning the most appropriate treatment guidelines for intersex children currently exists. This is due to a lack of long-term information regarding medical, surgical, and psychosexual outcome in affected adults. We have assessed by questionnaire and medical examination the physical and psychosexual status of 14 women with documented complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS). We have also determined participant knowledge of CAIS as well as opinion of medical and surgical treatment. As a whole, secondary sexual development of these women was satisfactory, as judged by both participants and physicians. In general, most women were satisfied with their psychosexual development and sexual function. Factors reported to contribute to dissatisfaction were sexual abuse in one case and marked obesity in another. All of the women who participated were satisfied with having been raised as females, and none desired a gender reassignment. Although not perfect, the medical, surgical, and psychosexual outcomes for women with CAIS were satisfactory; however, specific ways for improving long-term treatment of this population were identified.

Prospective assessment of pituitary size and shape on MR imaging after suppressive hormonal therapy in central precocious puberty.

The diagnostic significance of an enlarged pituitary gland regarding both shape and size parameters on MR imaging has previously been demonstrated in children with central precocious puberty. This study was designed to assess changes in these parameters following successful suppressive therapy of central precocious puberty with the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue. Twelve girls (mean age 7.3 years) with central precocious puberty were prospectively enrolled in our study protocol. Sagittal and coronal MR images of the pituitary region were obtained in all patients before treatment and after at least 6 months of GnRH analogue therapy (mean 18.0 months). Parameters measured included pituitary gland height, length, width, sagittal cross-sectional area, and volume. All patients had excellent clinical response to treatment with arrest of secondary sexual development, normalization of serum estradiol levels, and complete obliteration of the LH response to diagnostic GnRH stimulation. No significant change occurred in any pituitary size or shape parameter following GnRH analogue therapy. Favorable clinical response to GnRH analogue therapy in central precocious puberty is not accompanied by significant a change in pituitary gland size and shape.

Changes in Midorbital to Hypural Length and Morphology in Maturing Sockeye Salmon

Abstract The morphology of sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka changes dramatically as the fish mature. The extent of those changes and whether or not midorbital to hypural length (MOHP) also undergoes change have not been examined. We measured MOHP, body depth, girth, and snout length of migrating sockeye salmon as they entered their natal lake, tagged them, and measured them again after recapture on the spawning grounds. All measured dimensions changed; MOHP decreased 5% in males, while body depth increased 18% and snout length increased 25%. Females changed less than males. Midorbital to hypural length did not change in a way that was explained by allocation of those resources into basal metabolism, secondary sexual development, or gonadal development. In order to use MOHP of mature adults to establish harvest rates on a small population within a fishing district, the change in MOHP should be established, as well as a conversion from the length measurement used at the time of fishing.

Diabetes challenge in Russia

Diabetes challenge in Russia

Growth hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone concentrations in captive male orangutans: implications for understanding developmental arrest.

There are two morphs of reproductive male in orangutans. Both morphs span the age range from adolescent to adult, but "subadult" males are smaller in size and lack secondary sexual features. In this study, urine samples were collected over a 2 year period from 23 captive male orangutans in order to define the endocrinology of this apparent arrest of secondary sexual development. Three males were juveniles, 3 to 5 years of age; seven males showed no secondary sexual trait development and were over 7 years of age; six males were in the process of developing secondary sexual features, with the youngest male being 6 years of age; and seven males were fully mature adults. Morning samples were analyzed by radioimmunoassay for levels of growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and group hormone profiles were compared by analysis of variance. GH is the primary hormone of growth and development and its increase in teenage boys is associated with the adolescent growth spurt. TSH stimulates the thyroid to produce and secrete hormones that have metabolic effects and required for normal growth and development. Results show that arrested adolescent male orangutans have a GH level about 1/3 that of developing adolescents (P = .0006). TSH levels do not differ significantly between arrested and developing adolescents. These data complement other endocrine data showing significantly lower levels of sex steroids and luteinizing hormone (LH) in arrested males than developing males [Maggioncalda, 1995a,b; Maggioncalda et al., 1999]. Together with documented behavioral differences between reproductive males with and without secondary sexual features, these endocrine data support the hypothesis that in male orangutans there are alternative developmental pathways and corresponding alternative reproductive strategies.

Reproductive hormone profiles in captive male orangutans: implications for understanding developmental arrest.

For many years researchers have described some male orangutans as "subadult." These males are of adolescent to adult age and are reproductive, but have little to no secondary sexual trait development. Until now the only endocrine study of this arrest of secondary sexual trait development was performed by Kingsley (1982, 1988). She found that "subadult" or arrested males have lower testosterone levels than similar age developing adolescents or adult males. In this study, urine samples were collected over a two-year period from 23 captive male orangutans in order to more fully define male endocrine profiles. Three study males were juveniles, seven were arrested adolescents, six were developing adolescents, and seven were mature adults. Morning samples were analyzed by radioimmunoassay for levels of testicular steroids and gonadotropins and group hormone profiles were compared by analysis of variance. Results illustrate that arrested adolescent orangutans have significantly lower testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) levels than developing adolescents, but significantly higher levels than juveniles. Luteinizing hormone (LH) levels also differed between arrested and developing adolescents, with arrested males having lower levels. However, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were similar in both morphs of adolescent male. The overall hormone profiles for arrested and developing adolescent male orangutans suggest that arrested males lack levels of LH, testosterone, and DHT necessary for development of secondary sexual traits. However, they have sufficient testicular steroids, LH, and FSH to fully develop primary sexual function and fertility. These endocrine data help define alternative developmental pathways in male orangutans. The authors discuss the relationship between these developmental pathways and male orangutan reproductive strategies, and hypothesize about their prepubertal socioendocrine determination.

Animals as sentinels of human health hazards of environmental chemicals.

A workshop titled "Using Sentinel Species Data to Address the Potential Human Health Effects of Chemicals in the Environment," sponsored by the U.S. Army Center for Environmental Health Research, the National Center for Environmental Assessment of the EPA, and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, was held to consider the use of sentinel and surrogate animal species data for evaluating the potential human health effects of chemicals in the environment. The workshop took a broad view of the sentinel species concept, and included mammalian and nonmammalian species, companion animals, food animals, fish, amphibians, and other wildlife. Sentinel species data included observations of wild animals in field situations as well as experimental animal data. Workshop participants identified potential applications for sentinel species data derived from monitoring programs or serendipitous observations and explored the potential use of such information in human health hazard and risk assessments and for evaluating causes or mechanisms of effect. Although it is unlikely that sentinel species data will be used as the sole determinative factor in evaluating human health concerns, such data can be useful as for additional weight of evidence in a risk assessment, for providing early warning of situations requiring further study, or for monitoring the course of remedial activities. Attention was given to the factors impeding the application of sentinel species approaches and their acceptance in the scientific and regulatory communities. Workshop participants identified a number of critical research needs and opportunities for interagency collaboration that could help advance the use of sentinel species approaches.

Conditions spanning paediatric and adult endocrine practice--the adult perspective.

Close liaison between paediatric and adult endocrinologists is essential for optimum care in a variety of clinical conditions. The increasingly recognized importance of growth hormone deficiency (GHD) in the adult is a further indication for maintaining long-term follow-up of patients with isolated GHD, which remains demonstrable when linear growth is complete, in addition to those patients presenting in childhood with evidence of structural pituitary disease and anterior pituitary failure. Additional areas in which liaison is desirable include congenital adrenal hyperplasia, precocious puberty, gonadal dysgenesis and other disorders of primary and secondary sexual development, thyroid dysfunction, diabetes mellitus, inherited neoplasia syndromes and those conditions, for example Cushing's syndrome, which present in childhood but are more common in adult clinical endocrine practice. In this brief review, the diagnostic spectrum of the paediatric/adult interface is described and the rationale for an integrated approach to treatment and follow-up is outlined.

Fumonisins in Maize: Can We Reduce Their Occurrence?

Fumonisins in Maize: Can We Reduce Their Occurrence?

Growth of metacarpal II during female adolescence: Relationships to stature, weight, and skeletal and sexual maturity.

Growth of the second metacarpal (MC) was evaluated during female adolescence in 110 Turkish girls who were followed longitudinally starting from 8.5 to 11 years until a Greulich and Pyle skeletal age (SA) ≥17 years was reached. Stature (St), weight (Wt), stage of secondary sexual development (SSD), length (L), and medullary (M) and outer diameters (D) of MC were measured. Total cortical thickness (C) of MC was derived as the difference between D and M. Yearly rates of growth in L, D, C, and St were calculated for each 6 months from the smoothed data. Peak length (PLV), peak D (PDV), and peak C (PCV) velocities and the ages at reaching these peaks were determined. L at fusion was 62.4 ± 3.0 mm and correlated significantly with adult stature (AdSt). PLV was 4.09 ± 0.60 mm/yr at a mean age of 12.28 ± 0.90 years and it correlated best with PHV (r = 0.52), then with L at fusion and AdSt, but not with ages at PLV, PHV, PDV, fusion, and onset of SSD. PLV occurred synchronously with PDV, 0.1 years after PHV, 0.9 years after onset of the breast bud, 0.4 years after onset of axillary hair, and 1.1 years before menarche. Age at PLV correlated best with age at PHV, and in decreasing order with ages at fusion, menarche, PDV, and onset of SSD, but not with PLV, PDV, PHV, L at fusion, and AdSt. The most important single factor determining MC L was St (R = 0.77). Multifactorial analysis showed that in conjunction with St, D and C are contributory determinants of L, while SA is not. MC D was primarily determined by L. In conjunction with L, C and chronological age (CA) contributed positively and SA negatively. Velocity of C reached its peak at 13.04 ± 1.20 years, 0.72 and 0.76 years after PLV and PDV, respectively. After 14 years, C continued to increase significantly, while growth increments in D and L were greatly reduced. This was realized by a significant reduction in M, which indicates that there is endosteal deposition of bone. Increase in C was significantly associated with increasing stages of SSD and inversely with M. Multifactorial analysis, however, showed that SSD is not an independent factor and that C is determined primarily by SA, and then inversely by M and directly by L. Once these factors are known, other factors, such as SSD, St, and Wt, lose their significance. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 9:425-438, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Socioeconomic differences in growth of metacarpal II during adolescence in females: Interactions with sexual and skeletal maturity.

In order to study the role of socioeconomic status (SES) in growth of the second metacarpal (MC) during adolescence in females, 352 cross-sectional observations of 34 girls from high SES 11-17 years of age were compared with 876 cross-sectional observations of age-matched low to middle SES Turkish girls. Values for MC length (L), L/outer diameter (D), total cortical thickness (C), C/L, C/D%, stature, weight, stages of secondary sexual development (SSD), and skeletal age (SA) were significantly greater in the high SES, while outer (D) and medullary diameter (M), C-area, M-area, and MC-volume were significantly smaller. The estimated total average increase in C/year was 0.21 versus 0.22 mm in low-middle and high SES girls, respectively, being twice as high before 14 years compared with at 14-17 years. The decrease in M started earlier and was steeper in the high SES. M was significantly smaller in the high SES when SSD or years before and after menarche was controlled, and also after SA of 14 years, while C was not significantly different under these conditions. M and D values for a given L were significantly greater in low-middle SES girls, while differences in C were not significant. It was concluded that reduced C for age in low-middle SES girls is a reflection of their overall slower growth relative to high SES girls, and once they catch up in growth the difference in C between groups is no longer significant. However, there still is a greater D for a given L, which is mainly due to significantly greater M for L, which was present at the beginning of the study. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 9:439-448, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Postmortem perianal findings in children.

The postmortem finding of anal dilation or an exposed pectinate line in children who have died under suspicious circumstances continues to raise the concern of possible sexual abuse. The following multicenter, collaborative study was designed to help address that question. Sixty-five subjects, ranging in age from birth to 17 years, were autopsied at three different sites. A standard protocol along with 35-mm cameras were used to record the results. Thirty-eight (58%) subjects were boys, and 27 (42%) were girls. Forty-two (65%) were white, 10 (15%) African-American, five (8%) Asian, three (5%) white Hispanic and five (8%) other. Fifty-seven (88%) were in Tanner stage I of secondary sexual development. Thirty-four (52%) died of natural causes, 26 (40%) from accidental injuries, three (5%) from other causes, and four (6%) as a result of a homicide. Forty-eight subjects (74%) had some dilation of the anal sphincters. In 21 children (32%), the entire anal canal, including the rectal ampulla, could be visualized. In another 21 (32%) subjects, the pectinate line was exposed. Only the outer portion of the anal canal opened in six children (10%), whereas 17 (26%) had no dilatation of the anus. Anal laxity led to flattened skin folds in 50 (77%), a shallow anal canal in 40 (62%), the exposure of both the pectinate line in 38 (59%), and the anal mucosa in 24 (37%). Venous congestion was present in 14 (22%), venous pooling in three (5%), erythema in six (9%), and increased pigmentation in eight (12%). Funneling was found in two (3%). Blood was present in three (5%), and an abrasion was discovered in one (2%). No fissures, lacerations, hemorrhoids, or scars were found in any of the children. Anal orifice size varied with the age of the child, the amount of traction applied to the buttocks, and a history of a CNS injury at the time of death. It is suggested, finally, that anal dilatation alone cannot be used a marker for prior sexual abuse and the exposure of the pectinate line should not be confused with tears or fissures of the anal verge. Further studies of children known to have been sodomized prior to death are required.

Laparoscopic Reduction of an Ovary Incarcerated in a Right Inguinal Hernia in Mullerian Agenesis

A 33-year-old patient had normal secondary sexual development, primary amenorrhea, and a blind vaginal pouch accompanied by cyclic pain and swelling in the right inguinal area. Physical examination and ultrasound suggested an incarcerated ovary in a right indirect hernia. This report describes laparoscopic reduction of the ovary and hernia repair. (J GYNECOL SURG 12:57, 1996)

Genital bleeding in premenarcheal children

Objective: The earlier occurrence of secondary sexual development and the advance in diagnostic techniques prompted us to review our recent experience with genital bleeding in childhood. Method: We analyzed data for all patients aged less than 10 years who were referred to Gifu University School of Medicine-affiliated hospitals from 1984 through 1993. Results: From a total of 330 girls, 62 (approximately 20%) complained of genital bleeding. The patients were distributed equally between 0 and 10 years of age. In 46 of 62 patients (74%), bleeding resulted from a local lesion of the vagina: 28 due to vulvovaginitis, six to urethral prolapse, six to trauma, three to foreign bodies and three to vaginal tumors. Malignant vaginal tumors were seen in two patients: sarcoma botryoides and endodermal sinus tumor. Both were diagnosed by histopathological examination of an exophytic vaginal tumor, with several weeks' interval from the initial episode of bleeding to diagnosis. The remaining 16 patients (26%), with no demonstrable local lesions, bled as a result of some form of precocious puberty. In six patients, precocious puberty was secondary to a hormonally active ovarian tumor, five of these patients also experiencing advanced breast development. Routine ultrasound and hormonal evaluations promptly detected the presence of tumor. None of three patients with idiopathic precocious puberty presented with secondary sexual development. No specific etiology was established in seven patients. Conclusion: Genital bleeding alerts us to the possibility, though rare, of a genital tract tumor. Prompt and precise detection may lead to cure and preservation of future fertility.

Rate of skeletal maturation in relation to secondary sexual development during female adolescence.

The relationship between rate of skeletal maturation (interval from capping of hand epiphyses to fusion of radius) and rate of secondary sexual development was studied in a longitudinal sample of 76 normal Turkish girls. The interval from capping to fusion correlated inversely and significantly with the stage of secondary sexual development (SSD) attained at capping. It is concluded that the rate of skeletal maturation and expected growth after the onset of capping are not constant and depend on the stage of secondary sexual characteristic development, the former being shorter with more advanced sexual maturation. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

High-dose estrogen-progestogen injections in gonadal dysgenesis, ovarian hypoplasia, and androgen insensitivity syndrome: Impact on bone density

Osteopenia is common in gonadal dysgenesis when no sex steroid replacement therapy is carried out. Four patients with gonadal dysgenesis, one with ovarian hypoplasia, and one with androgen insensitivity syndrome, all having osteopenia, were treated by high-dose estrogen-progestogen injections (so-called “pseudopregnancy”) for 6 months. Each patient showed considerable increase in lumbar spine bone mineral density and impressive secondary sexual development during therapy.

7 SHORT TERM TREATMENT WITH TWO DIFFERENT aLH-RN IN CENTRAL PRECOCIOUS PUBERTY (CPP)

To analyze the effect of two aLH-RH, Triptorelin(T)dose × 100 ug /Kg and Leuprolide (L) dose 200-300 ug/Kg administered every 28 days, 25 girls with CPP treated for 0.5-2 years, were studied. Three groups were analyzed: A (n=7) treatment with medroxyprogesterone (MPA) and then T;B (n=11) only T; C(n=7) only L. Secondary sexual development was arrested or decreased in all cases. Urocyto-gram(mauration index score)decreased in all cases. As there were not significative differences in the besaline levels of LH, FSH and E, A and B were analyzed together. Height velocity decreased in both groups(A and B)after 6 months of therapy(A)and 12 months(B); in the C group the decrease was not significant. The ABA/ACA was 1.2, 1.02 and 1.06 after one year treatment in A,B and C group respectively and decreased to 0.72 and 0.71 at two years of treatment in A and B respectively. The high levels of immunological LH during treatment could be due to the presence of alpha subunit chains not inhibited by the analogue. No differences were found in the effectiveness between the two compared analogues.

Mild phenotype and normal gonadal function in females with 4p trisomy due to unbalanced t(X;4)(p22.1;p14)

In this report we describe the mild phenotypic manifestations and normal gonadal function in a 50-year-old mother and her 17-year-old daughter with 4p trisomy resulting from an unbalanced t(X;4)(p22.1;p14) mat. Late replication of the der(X) was demonstrated by BrdU incorporation with spreading of the late replication to the 4p portion as an explanation of the reduced effect of the trisomy 4p/monosomy Xp on the physical and secondary sexual development in both patients.

The experience of breast development and girls' stories about the purchase of a bra

Girls' experiences of secondary sexual characteristic development were explored via direct interview and protective techniques. In a pilot study (Study 1), 30 White middle to upper middle class 6th–8th-grade girls were interviewed about how they felt about breast and pubic hair growth, their comfort discussing these events, and their information acquisition. Breast growth was perceived as more important than hair growth, in part because the former is perceived as a more public event. Few girls reported intensely negative feelings to either change. Since responses to the direct questions were limited, 80 White 6th–9th graders were asked to tell a story (using a semi structured interview technique) about a picture of an adolescent girl, adult female, and adult male in which the adult female was taking a bra out of a shopping bag (Study 2). Affect, attitudes, and character alliances were coded. More girls attributed negative feelings to the father than to the mother character. Almost all girls describe the adolescent in the story as embarrassed. The daughter and father characters were described as uncomfortable more often than the mother character (50% vs. 10%). Positive maternal affect in the stories was associated with more advanced pubertal status, positive body images, more positive emotional tone, and lower anxiety scores. Affect ascribed to the father and daughter characters was less likely to be associated with girls' psychological functioning. Results are discussed in term sof the possible role of puberty upon parent-child relationships and communication.