Secondary Pollen Research Articles

Melissopalynological and physicochemical analysis of honey samples from Prayagraj District, Uttar Pradesh

In melissopalynological and physicochemical analyses of 14 honey samples collected from different rural and urban localities of Prayagraj District, Uttar Pradesh, 43 pollen types were identified and categorized as predominant (above 45%), secondary (16–45%), important minor (3–15%) and minor (below 3%). Five of the 14 samples were classified as unifloral due to the presence of predominant pollen types (above 45%), and the other 9 as multifloral. Brassica campestris and Coriandrum sativum were the predominant pollen types in unifloral honey; 14 pollen types were documented in the secondary pollen types (16–45%) in multifloral honey. The analyzed physicochemical parameters included pH (mean 3.40 ± 0.15 to 4.74 ± 0.4), electrical conductivity (mean 0.13 ± 0.03 to 1.39 ± 0.17 mS/cm), total dissolved solids (120 ± 1.23 to 1260 ± 1 ppm), moisture content (12.17 ± 1.39 to 24.78 ± 1.54 mg/100 g) and ash content (0.15 ± .04 to 1.68 ± .27 mg/100g). The color of the honey ranged from water-white to dark amber. Among the minerals, magnesium was found to be most abundant (9 ± 0 to 11.8 ± 0 mg/kg), followed by iron (2.0 ± 0 to 4.8 ± 0 mg/kg) and zinc (0.39 ± 0 to 0.63 ± 0 mg/kg). The heavy metals cadmium, lead, copper and arsenic were below the limit of detection (< 0.01 mg/kg) in all honey samples except in samples H6 (Cd 0.01 mg/kg, Pd 0.27 mg/kg), H11 (Cd 0.02 mg/kg, Pd 0.05 mg/kg), H13 (Pd 0.02 mg/kg) and H14 (Cd 0.01 mg/kg, Pd 0.04 mg/kg). The physicochemical parameters varied significantly (p < 0.05) between samples. Findings of the present study indicate that the honey is of good quality and should be used in projects for commercialization of regional honey.

Pollination biology and breeding system of Desmodium grahamii (Fabaceae, Papilionoideae): functional aspects of flowers and bees

This study aims to understand the role of floral traits in determining the pollination and reproduction of Desmodium grahamii (Fabaceae, Papilionoideae) with explosive floral mechanism in populations occurring in a natural reserve and botanical garden in southern Mexico City. We assessed the breeding system by quantifying floral and pollinator activity, compatibility, pollination, and reproductive success, assisted by field and laboratory analyses. Results showed that cross-pollination and self-pollination coexist, but bees are required for fruit and seed set. Flower colour is the primary attractant. Floral scent is also likely important because the petals were covered with papillae, although no scent was perceptible. Morphological and functional observations of D. grahamii exhibit simultaneous pollen release and stigma receptivity when the flower is activated by a pollinator and there is no secondary pollen presentation; this contrasts with what has been reported on other species of Desmodium. Pollen is the pollinators’ only reward, and its deposition and collection must be done synchronically, occurring when a bee lands and introduces its proboscis in the flower. In this study, we identified seven floral visitors: five bee pollinators and two syrphid flies as pollen thieves. On some occasions, Apis mellifera also behaves as a pollen thief. Fruit and seed set of flowers that were isolated from visitors may indicate a delayed pollination mechanism. Pollination results also suggest that Apis bees and syrphid flies may contribute to fruit and seed production when they forage on flowers at post-anthesis.

Elaborated pollen packaging and dispensing mechanism induced by petal architecture from a Papaveraceae species.

Secondary pollen presentation (SPP) is a reproductive strategy that enhances the efficiency of pollen transfer, which has been explored for more than 200 years, resulting in 10 identified types of SPP. The ephemeral plant Hypecoum erectum L. (Papaveraceae) has an elaborate petal structure. The middle lobe is a key functional organ in SPP. To explore the importance of the middle lobe structure, we measured the flowering process, the curling movement and growth of the middle lobe, pollination characteristics, pollination efficiency, and the mating system in H. erectum in the field. The yellow middle lobe structure had an important role in attracting pollinators. The middle lobes on the inner petals function as a redundant cucullate structure and wrapped about 84% of the total pollen grains as soon as the anthers dehisced. These then grew upward and gradually presented pollen to pollinators via the roll out of the middle lobes. One bee species, Colletes vestitus from Colletidae, was the only effective pollinator of H. erectum. The SPP mechanism increased the efficiency of pollen transfer by C. vestitus. The middle lobes, which wrapped pollen and grew upward, contacted the stigma and provided an advantage for self-pollination and outcrossing by growing upward higher than the corolla. Hypecoum erectum L. has a mixed mating system with selfing and outcrossing. Thus, the SPP mechanism plays a key role during the pollination process and is necessary for improving pollination efficiency and promoting reproductive success.

Birch pollen allergy in Europe.

Birch and other related trees of the families Betulaceae and Fagaceae (alder, hazel, oak, hornbeam, chestnut, and beech) constitute the birch homologous group. This grouping is primarily based on the extensive IgE cross-reactivity of allergen homologs to the major birch allergen Bet v 1. Birch pollen is the most dominant tree pollen in Northern and Central Europe and is a major cause of allergic rhinitis and, possibly, asthma symptoms. Over the last few decades, levels of birch pollen have risen and the period of exposure has increased due to climate changes. Subsequently, the prevalence of birch pollen sensitization has also increased. The cross-reactivity and sequential pollen seasons within the birch homologous group create a prolonged symptomatic allergy period beyond birch pollen alone. Furthermore, many plant food allergens contain homologs to Bet v 1, meaning that the majority of patients with birch pollen allergy suffer from secondary pollen food syndrome (PFS). As a result, the negative impact on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in patients allergic to birch pollen is significant. The purpose of this manuscript was to narratively review topics of interest such as taxonomy, cross-reactivity, prevalence, clinical relevance, PFS, and HRQoL with regard to birch pollen allergy from a European perspective.

Dynamics of secondary pollen presentation in Campanula medium (Campanulaceae).

After several decades of research, dynamics and patterns of mating system in floral evolution remain incompletely understood, especially with regards to strategies that combine both outcrossing and selfing, as frequently recorded in the genus Campanula. Data about temporal and spatial dynamics of secondary pollen presentation are still scarce in literature: we investigated them using Campanula medium (Campanulaceae) as case study. Experimental pollinations were conducted under natural conditions, to characterise the breeding system of this species. Effects on stigma opening and stigma receptivity of stylar pollen presence were investigated in manipulated flowers. The temporal dynamics and fitness of male and female functional phases were estimated. Flower visitors and their interactions with sexual parts of the flower were also annotated. C. medium is xenogamous and self-incompatible, with a clear temporal separation between sexual functional phases. Floral lifespan is shortened by experimental outcrossing. Removal of pollen from the style shortened the time span of male function. Pollen viability was highest at the beginning of the anthesis, decreasing during the flowering period, whereas stigmatic receptivity shows an opposite trend. We found a severe pollen limitation in the studied population. Bees were the most frequent floral visitors. In some of these insects we observed stereotyped interactions with the reproductive structures of the flower, in particular with the pollen, exposed along the upper and median portion of the style. Sexual phases in C. medium are inversely correlated and finely spatially and temporally coordinated, since stigma maturation is scalar along its length and depends on pollen presence on the style. Overall, our findings push forward the knowledge on reproductive strategies in Campanula.

Melissopalynological determination of the Pollen density, Botanical origin and Ogiek Honey types in Eastern Mau Forest, Kenya

The current international market demands for the set up of honey quality control protocols according to the botanical origin based on pollen content. The objective of the present study was to determine the pollen density, honey types, and botanical origin of honey from the Eastern Mau Ogiek beekeepers as a reference to commercial strategies for sellers and buyers. 27 honey samples, three from each of the strata (Mariashoni, Kapkembu, and Nessuit) were collected at the end of April, 2016; August 2016; December, 2016 from the hives of Beekeeping Ogieks in Eastern Mau forest region. 10g of the honey samples were processed through approved melissopalynological procedures. Absolute pollen counts ranged from 47,898-160,200/10g. 59.3% and 40.7% of honey samples fell into classes II and III respectively with no representations of Classes I, IV and V. 29.63% of the honey samples were unifloral, while the rest constituted heterofloral honey. Unifloral honey samples were observed from the three mesoregions of Eastern Mau forest. 50% of the unifloral honey were collected in April (2016). Botanical origin from predominant pollen types were Acacia type, Eucalyptus type, Croton spp. type, Albizia coriaria type, Cordia abyssinica type, and Vernonia auriculifera type. The extent of predominance ranged from (47.1%-66.40%), there was bifloral honey observed in MA-S1-DE sample (Vernonia auriculifera type and Croton spp. type, 46.0% and 47.50% respectively). Secondary pollen ranged from (16.4%-43.4%). All honey samples were floral honey.

Secondary pollen presentation and foral traits of Heliconia psittacorum

The secondary presentation of pollen consists of a foral mechanism where the presentation of pollen occurs in other foral structures in addition to the anther, in order to increase the precision of the dispersion of the pollen by the vectors. This study aims to describe the temporal dynamics of secondary pollen presentation, and morphological and morphometric characteristics in stages of pre- anthesis and anthesis in genotypes of fve natural Heliconia psittacorum populations. For the study of foral morphometry traits of length of the fower, stamen, stigma and height of flament insertion in the petal in bud and fower were measured. The foral morphology of pre-anthesis buds and fowers in anthesis, the presence or absence of characteristics such as herkogamy, region of flament insertion in the petal, region of stylar hairs, and of secondary pollen deposition were evaluated. Treatments of controlled pollinations, self-pollination, geitonogamy, cross-pollination, natural pollination and growth to pollen tube were sampled. Floral herkogamy and pollen transfer to the adhered hairs in the stylar region were clearly observed during anthesis, constituting the frst record of occurrence of secondary pollen presentation in Heliconiaceae. Pollen tube growth was inhibited in the stigmatic, style and basal regions of the pistil. Natural fruiting produced little or no fruit. The positioning of the stamens above the stigma, pollen viability and stigma receptivity during anthesis of H. psittacorum fowers may favor self-pollination. The stylar hairs observed in all H. psittacorum populations’ help in the retention of pollen grains. The low fruiting rate in controlled and natural pollinations suggest that the main propagation form of H. psittacorum in the study areas is based on asexual reproduction.

POLLEN ANALYSIS OF THE HONEY FROM SOUTH ANATOLIA

For pollen analysis, 19 honey samples were collected from different localities in Ereğli, Karapınar, Ayrancı and Ulukışla regions of Konya, Karaman and Ulukışla, respectively, in November 2015. All investigated honey samples were multifloral because they contained secondary and minor pollen groups. The dominant group of pollen grains were determined as the families of Fabaceae in 2 samples and Scrophulariaceae in 5 other samples, Helianthus annuus in 1 sample and Zea mays in 1 sample. Secondary pollen groups consisted of the families of Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, Scrophulariaceae and genera of Centaurea, Cistus, Eucalyptus and Linaria. Pollen of 55 plant taxa were identified in examined honey samples of which 21 were classified on the family level, 30 were on the genera level, 1 was on the tribe level and 3 were on the species level. The total number of pollen (TPN-10) in 10 grams of honey ranged from 332 to 42496. According to the results of the TPN-10 analysis in honey samples, 3 samples were normal and others were poor. The taxa of Zea mays, Cistus, Poaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Amaranthaceae were found in pollen sources. Helianthus annuus and Brassicaceae were found in nectar sources. Fabaceae, Rosaceae, Eucalyptus, Centaurea were found in nectar and pollen sources and were identified in the honey.

Pollination ecology of Synedrella nodiflora (l.) Gaertn. (Asteraceae)

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn grows almost throughout the year if the soil is damp. It produces heterogamous capitula with female ray florets anthesing first day and bisexual disc florets anthesing on the next three consecutive days. Disc florets are dichogamous, herkogamous, self-compatible, self-pollinating (vector-mediated) and display secondary pollen presentation through an intermediate form of brush mechanism. Ray and disc florets exhibit facultative xenogamy. Butterflies are principal pollinators while bees, wasps and flies are supplementary pollinators. Thrips, Microcephalothrips abdominalis uses the florets as breeding and feeding sites; the feeding activity effects pollination. The ray and disc florets produce cypselas; the cypselas produced by ray florets are heavier, elliptical, membranous with upwardly-pointing teeth along the margins and 2 short terminal awns while those produced by disc floret are lighter, cylindrical and tangentially compressed with 2 or 3 stiff terminal divaricate awns. Seed dispersal is polychorous and represented by anemochory, anthropochory, zoochory and ombrohydrochory. Cypselas of ray florets disperse to short distances and germinate germinate under specific germination conditions either at parental sites or in similar habitats while those of disc florets disperse farther away from parental sites and germinate readily under a wide range of conditions. Therefore, bimorphic cypselas with different germination abilities enable the plant to grow as a widespread weed but not as an invasive weed.

Secondary pollen presentation on anther hairs enhances reproductive fitness in Brandisia hancei, a protogynous perennial with autonomous selfing

ABSTRACTBackground: Secondary pollen presentation (SPP) is a phenomenon where pollen is relocated from within the anthers to other floral structures for presentation.Aims: We report a new mechanism of androecial SPP on anther hairs, which is involved in increasing reproductive fitness in Brandisia hancei.Methods: The morphological change of anther hairs during floral ageing was recorded, and pollen grains were quantified after anther hair removal to clarify the roles played by hairs in pollen retention. Additionally, fruit set and seed set were assessed to investigate the efficiency of anther hairs to reproductive success.Results: Young flowers of B. hancei showed approach herkogamy, while autonomous selfing was achieved by changes in relative positions of the stigma and anthers during floral ageing. In B. hancei, anthers developed characteristic hairs of epidermal origin, and hairs originated along the furrow between the paired pollen sacs and were used for SPP after anther dehiscence. Anther hairs increased pollen retention by over 70% in later floral-age stages, and seed set decreased by about 30% after anther hairs had been removed.Conclusions: In the process of autonomous selfing, SPP on anther hairs enhances both the male and female functions of the flowers of B. hancei.

Melissopalynological analysis of stingless bee (Tetragonula pagdeni) honey in Eastern Thailand

Abstract Melissopalynological analysis of 72 Tetragonula pagdeni honey samples, collected from various locations in Chanthaburi (A) and Trat (B) provinces, Eastern Thailand during March 2015, was performed. Overall, 45 pollen types species belonging to 22 plant families were identified. The predominant pollen type was from Nephelium lappaceum and comprised 48.5% of the pollen in honey from location A2 (Pathavee district) and 45.3% in location B1 (AoYai district). The secondary pollen types, Wodyetia bifurcata and Mimosa pudica, accounted for 20.1% and 17.0%, respectively, in location B3 (Nhongsamed district), while Cocos nucifera accounted for 17.2% in location A2. In addition, pollen types of C. nucifera, M. pudica, N. lappaceum, Asystasia gangetica, Amaranthus lividus, Areca catechu, Chromolaena odorata and Durio zibethinus were found in T. pagdeni honey from all sampled locations. Furthermore, in the dearth period, T. pagdeni foraged food (as in pollen was present) from Musa sp., Acacia mangium and various weed species, such as A. gangetica, A. lividus, Ageratum conyzoides, Bidens pilosa, C. odorata, Melampodium divaricatum, Mikania cordata, Merremia umbellata, M. pudica, Pennisetum pedicellarum and Thysanoleana maxima, from within a 500 m radius around the hive to maintain their colonies.

SECONDARY POLLEN PRESENTATION, PSYCHOPHILY AND ANEMOCHORY IN Lagascea mollis Cav. (ASTERACEAE)

Information on pollination ecology and seed dispersal aspects is essential to understand sexual reproduction in Lagascea mollis Cav. The study was aimed at providing details of pollen presentation system, pollination syndrome, pollinators and seed dispersal mode for L. mollis based mostly on field study. Paper chromatography technique was used for recording sugar and amino acid types in the nectar, since they are important to evaluate the pollination syndrome. The study indicated that L. mollis flowers during August-November. The plant produces synflorescences consisting of several capitula. Each capitulum produces a single disc floret. The plant is protandrous, temporally dioecious and exhibits secondary pollen presentation using brush mechanism to prevent autonomous selfing. The floral characteristics such as having synflorescence, narrow tubular corolla, production of sucrose-rich nectar with essential and non-essential amino acids and pollen charactersistics such as having spherical shape, tri-colpate apertures and strongly spinulose exine suggested that the plant is adapted for insect pollination. The plant is principally psychophilous. Other insects also visited the florets opportunistically and acted as supplementary pollinators. Further, thrips used this plant as breeding and feeding sites; their effect mostly geitonogamy. The fruit is an achene, anemochorous and also anthropochorous. Regeneration occurred from seeds and perennial root stock during rainy season.

Floral morphology and anatomy of Ophiocaryon, a paedomorphic genus of Sabiaceae.

Ophiocaryon is a lesser known genus in Sabiaceae. This study examines flowers of six Ophiocaryon species in comparison with Meliosmaalba, to identify taxonomically informative characters for understanding relationships within the family Sabiaceae, to imply previously unknown pollination mechanisms of Ophiocaryon, and to contribute to the placement of Sabiaceae within the early-diverging eudicots. Floral morphology and anatomy of six Ophiocaryon species and M. alba were studied and described using scanning electron microscopy, clearing techniques and resin sectioning. Novel characters of Ophiocaryon were identified, e.g. conical cells on petals, different kinds of orbicules in anthers, stomata on nectary appendage tips and ovary, two distinct surface patterns on stamens and ovary, tanniferous cell layers in the ovary wall, and acorn-shaped unitegmic ovules with very short integuments. Comparison of floral characters between Ophiocaryon and Meliosma found that the calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium of Ophiocaryon resemble an undeveloped state of the latter taxon, reflecting a paedomorphic regression of the flower of Ophiocaryon. The flower morphology and anatomy of Ophiocaryon was compared with its putative sister species M. alba, but no clear shared derived characters could be detected. Moreover, the findings of scent, presence of conical cells on petals and a nectary suggest flowers are pollinated by small insects with a secondary pollen presentation on the cupula of fertile stamens. We found that Ophiocaryon may be derived from ancestors that were similar to extant Meliosma in their flower structure and pollination mechanism. However, the lack of shared derived characters between Ophiocaryon and its phylogenetic sister group M. alba is puzzling and requires further investigations on the diversity of the latter species.

Ecological aspects of the floral structure and flowering in Pulsatilla species

In terms of flowering ecology, <em>Pulsatilla</em> flowers are classified as “pollen flowers” producing inconsiderable amounts of nectar. The aim of this study was to assess the length of the flowering period in <em>Pulsatilla slavica</em> and <em>P. vulgaris</em> and to investigate the structure of the epidermis of the perianth and generative elements of their flowers. Special focus was placed on the structure of hairs and the distribution of stomata. The weight of nectar released by the flowers of the two <em>Pulsatilla</em> species and the content of sugars in the nectar was also evaluated. In SE Poland, both species flowered for similar periods between the second half of April and the first half of May. The flower life-span of both was determined to be 9–14 days. The lower part of each sepal was observed to be covered by long hairs having cellulose-pectin cell walls of varying thickness. Hairs present on the pistil style are thinner; they may provide some protection against cold and can play a role of a secondary pollen presenter for insects. The bowl-shaped structure of the perianth and the nature of the adaxial surface of the sepal epidermis may facilitate reflection of sunlight into the inner parts of the flower, which may contribute to an elevation of the intraflower temperature. This is particularly important for the functionality of the ovary. The surface of the hairs was seen to be covered by a cuticle ensuring water impermeability. Flowers are visited by honeybees, bumblebees, butterflies, and ants, for which nectar and pollen are the main attractants. Ants, which are regarded as illegitimate flower visitors, were found to cause damage to the androecium. The number of fruits produced in the flowers of both <em>Pulsatilla</em> species was lower than 50% of the number of pistils.

Comparing the efficiency of pollination mechanisms in Papilionoideae

The pump pollination mechanism is typical of basal clades within Papilionoideae and might be associated with less efficient pollen transfer systems, while the explosive tripping mechanism is considered more advanced and might represent the highest expression of the trend in pollen economy. Crotalaria pumila, C. stipularia, Desmodium incanum and D. subsericeum present secondary pollen presentation with pump and explosive pollination mechanisms, respectively. In the present study, we evaluate and compare (1) pollen removal, (2) pollen deposition and (3) pollen transfer efficiency of both mechanisms, considering single visits by Megachile spp., common pollinators of the four plant species in Salta Province, Argentina. Comparisons of visit durations are made in relation to the type of mechanism and rewards offered. We detected significant differences between both mechanisms in the proportion of pollen grains removed and deposited in a flower after a single visit of Megachile. We found that efficiency in pollen transfer was significantly higher for explosive mechanism (2.13 ± 0.42 pollen grains deposited per 100 removed) than for pump mechanism (0.33 ± 0.17 pollen grains deposited per 100 removed). This is the first study that compares efficiency between pollination mechanisms in this group of plants.

Three psychophilous Asteraceae species with distinct reproductive mechanisms in southeastern Brazil

ABSTRACTThe Asteraceae have a high diversity of reproductive mechanisms, as shown by studies conducted mainly with species from temperate regions. Aiming to contribute knowledge on the reproduction of tropical species, we compared the floral biology and breeding systems of the co-occurring species Adenostemma brasilianum, Bidens segetum and Grazielia intermedia, and additionally identified their pollinators. The study was conducted in a seasonal semideciduous forest fragment in southeastern Brazil. Florets opened in early morning and were protandrous. In the first day of anthesis, secondary pollen presentation occurred during the staminate phase, mainly in the morning. In the same day, the pistillate phase began, being long in A. brasilianum and B. segetum (up to 4 days) and short in G. intermedia (1 day). Pollen viability was high in all three species, except for two G. intermedia individuals which showed male sterility, thus characterising a gynodioecious population. Self-compatibility was observed in A. brasilianum and self-incompatibility in B. segetum. In G. intermedia, besides sexual reproduction, apomixis was also observed. This is the first report of apomixis in the genus Grazielia. Although the studied species show distinct reproductive mechanisms, all of them benefitted from cross-pollination, which was mostly done by butterflies.

Pollination ecology and fruiting behavior of Pavetta indica L. (Rubiaceae), a keystone shrub species in the southern Eastern Ghats forest, Andhra Pradesh, India

Pavetta indica is a massive bloomer for a brief period in May. The flowers are hermaphroditic, strikingly protandrous, self and cross-compatible, nectariferous and psychophilous. They possess secondary pollen presentation mechanism as a device to avoid autonomous autogamy but it does not prevent geitonogamy. The fruit set largely occurs through geitonogamy and xenogamy. Butterflies, especially papilionids, pierids, nymphalids, and sphingid hawk moth pollinate the flowers while collecting nectar. Honey bees and blue-banded digger bees feed on pollen and effect only accidental pollination. The nectar is sucrose-rich and contains essential and non-essential amino acids. Birds are seed dispersal agents. Seeds are non-dormant and germinate readily during rainy season but their continued growth and establishment is subject to the availability of soil moisture and nutrients. The plant is not able to populate itself in its natural area. The local uses of different parts of the plant have been found to be affecting its reproductive success and natural regeneration rate. Therefore, regulation of the uses of this plant is recommended for its survival and restoration of its population size in the natural areas due to its role as a keystone species for bees and butterflies during dry season.

Pollen Spectrum of honey samples of Apis cerana F. collected from different areas of Shiwalik hills.

In India beekeeping is still in infancy, offering vast scope for expansion as a prime agri-horticulture and forest-based rural industry. In order to make beekeeping a successful enterprise, first and foremost task in India is to educate beekeepers about the bee pasturage availability in different agroclimatic zones. This provides valuable information on availability and abundance of pollen and nectar sources, for honeybees during different seasons and helps ultimately in standardizing the seasonal management practices for honey bee colony. Unfortunately, our knowledge on this aspect in the country is scanty and unorganized. Therefore, melissopalynological studies were conducted on twelve honey samples and pollen loads collected from different localities of Shiwalik hills. Analysis of pollen types in honey was carried using standard methods of melissopalynology. These investigations revealed that predominant sporomorphs were: Brassica sp., Raphanus sp., Murraya sp., Eucalyptus sp. etc. whereas, calendula sp., Mangifera sp, Eruca sp., Trifolium sp., Woodfordia sp.. Psidium sp., Grewia sp., Phoenix sp., Hibiscus sp., Syzygium sp., Melia sp., Grewia sp., Acacia sp., Adhatoda sp., Citrus sp., Azadirachta sp. etc. were secondary pollen types. The important minor and minor pollen components represented in these honey samples were: Acacia sp., Adhatoda sp., Ageratum sp., Allium sp., Bauhinia sp., Berberis sp., Bidens sp., Callistemon sp., Carissa sp., Cassia sp., Chenopodium sp., Dalbergia sp., Dianthus sp., Gossypium sp., Grevillea sp., Grewia sp., Helianthus sp., Lagerstroemia sp., Lilium sp., Medicago sp., Murraya sp., Rubus sp., Salvia sp., Sapindus sp., Syzygium sp., Zea sp., Zizyphus sp., Bauhinia sp., Cestrum sp., Citrus sp., Litchi sp., Raphanus sp. Bombax sp., Embilica sp., Pisum sp., Rosa sp., Woodfordia sp. Aegle sp., Albizzia sp., Berberis sp.,Calendula sp., Cedrella sp., Dianthus sp., Leucaena sp., Ocimum sp., Pisum sp., Polygonum sp., Punica sp., Ricinus sp., Robinia sp., Taraxacum sp., Sonchus sp., Syzygium sp., Vitis sp., Bombax sp., Litchi sp and members of families Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Meliaceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae Myrtaceae Acanthaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Cannabinaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Papaveraceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae ,Sapindaceae and Rutaceae. Most of the honey samples had pollen of entomophilous plants with a small percentage of anemophilous types. These investigations also revealed both uniflorality and multiflorality in different honey samples. On the basis of present melissopalynological and bee botanical investigations, a floral calendar of honey plant resources of Shiwalik hills indicating their taxonomic status, geographic location, honey potentiality, periods of flowering and economic uses has been prepared. Present studies thus suggest that this region offers very rich potential for the development of beekeeping due to the multiplicity of bee flora available throughout the year. Such investigations can be helpful in setting up new apiaries, in migratory beekeeping practices and application of modern bee management technology.

A global perspective on Campanulaceae: Biogeographic, genomic, and floral evolution.

The Campanulaceae are a diverse clade of flowering plants encompassing more than 2300 species in myriad habitats from tropical rainforests to arctic tundra. A robust, multigene phylogeny, including all major lineages, is presented to provide a broad, evolutionary perspective of this cosmopolitan clade. We used a phylogenetic framework, in combination with divergence dating, ancestral range estimation, chromosome modeling, and morphological character reconstruction analyses to infer phylogenetic placement and timing of major biogeographic, genomic, and morphological changes in the history of the group and provide insights into the diversification of this clade across six continents. Ancestral range estimation supports an out-of-Africa diversification following the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event. Chromosomal modeling, with corroboration from the distribution of synonymous substitutions among gene duplicates, provides evidence for as many as 20 genome-wide duplication events before large radiations. Morphological reconstructions support the hypothesis that switches in floral symmetry and anther dehiscence were important in the evolution of secondary pollen presentation mechanisms. This study provides a broad, phylogenetic perspective on the evolution of the Campanulaceae clade. The remarkable habitat diversity and cosmopolitan distribution of this lineage appears to be the result of a complex history of genome duplications and numerous long-distance dispersal events. We failed to find evidence for an ancestral polyploidy event for this clade, and our analyses indicate an ancestral base number of nine for the group. This study will serve as a framework for future studies in diverse areas of research in Campanulaceae.

EYE ON CHINA

Oldest Peach Pits Found in China. Big Gene Bank to Anchor Precision Medicine. Koning Receives China Food and Drug Administration Clearance. UC Berkeley, Berkeley Lab Partner with China's Tsinghua on Clean Energy. China's Temperature, Sea Level Rise Faster than Global Average. Pandas prefer choosing their own Sex Partners, Researchers find. How Do Tibetan-Iranian Plateaus Influence the Asian Summer Monsoon? Pollen Chains Associated with Secondary Pollen Presentation in a Wild Ginger Species. Researchers Find Structural Isomerism in Gold Nanoparticles. How Does HCV Escape From Immune Response? Mt. Qomolangma Glaciers Shrink 28 pct in 40 Years: Report. DNA Dates Dog Domestication Back 33,000 Years. Crystal Structures of Human TIM Members: Ebolavirus Entry-enhancing Receptors.