Secondary Explosion Research Articles

Explosion dynamics for thermal runaway gases of 314 Ah LiFePO4 lithium-ion batteries triggered by overheating and overcharging

Thermal runaway (TR) of LiFePO4 lithium-ion batteries (LFPs) can produce significant amounts of smoke, posing serious explosion hazards. This paper systematically investigated TR gas generation, explosion limits, explosion overpressure, and post-explosion gas compositions of 314 Ah LFPs under overcharging and overheating. Quantum chemical and explosion reaction kinetics calculations clarified the elementary reactions and compositional alterations occurring in gases and free radicals during the explosion process. The findings revealed that H2 constituted the primary component of TR gases, comprising 47.64 % and 53.12 % of the overcharging and overheating, respectively, followed by CO2 and CO. The ranges of explosion concentration for TR gases, when subjected to overheating and overcharging conditions, were 6.32–29.3 % and 6.83–26.91 %, respectively. At the point of maximum explosion overpressure (Pmax), the gas concentrations peaked at 15.86 % and 16.25 %. The elementary reaction R1 held a pivotal position in enhancing the explosion overpressure. As the TR gas concentration escalated, the Rate of Production (ROP) of R31 and R35 also surged, ultimately resulting in elevated concentrations of CO. The reactions R123, R250, and R279 facilitated the generation of H2 while simultaneously consuming hydrocarbon gases. This resulted in a risk of secondary explosion of the TR gas after the explosion. Post-explosion gas residual quantities followed the order: C2H6 < C2H4 < CH4 < H2 < CO. The results revealed crucial insights for developing explosion prevention and suppression in the process safety industry and Energy Storage Systems.

Comprehensive Assessment of Deep-Water Vessel Implosion Mechanisms: OceanGate's Titan Submersible Failure Sequence Explained

This study outlines the physical mechanisms involved in a submersible implosion and analyzes the loss of the Titan submersible (‘sub’) that occurred on 18 June 2023 during a mission to visit the wreck of the Titanic. Titan’s collapse mechanisms at the moment of implosion are described in detail and outer hull fracturing rate, subsequent implosion rate, accompanying heat release and other key processes are quantified. Plausible causes of the hull’s leak leading up to critical loss of the sub's hermetic closure are reviewed using test results made publicly available by the U.S. Marine Board of Investigation. Their data indicated that the bond interfaces between the individual layers of the carbon fiber hull (Hull V2) were critically compromised due to manufacturing defects, voids, porosity, and inadequate adhesive integrity, resulting in significant delamination. Analysis of data from the real-time hull health monitoring system, revealed acoustic anomalies and strain shifts, pointing toward increasing structural fatigue, which went unaddressed prior to the fatal dive. The implosion process can be characterized by an instantaneous collapse of the air volume within the hull under extreme external pressure: even the tiniest leak would lead to destruction of the vessel's structural integrity. The destruction was the more devastating, because it was accompanied by a secondary explosion due to the heat exchange between the collapsing air volume and the ambient sea water. While the collapsing air was phase-changed into a supercritical state, the generated heat caused the adjacent seawater to evaporate and expand. Hull pieces fragmented by the initial implosion were strewn around during the secondary explosion phase, which ceased rapidly as the steam condensed back into seawater once again. The Titan incident underscores the urgent need for improved design standards, rigorous quality control in manufacturing, and enhanced real-time monitoring to prevent similar failures of future deep-sea exploration vehicles.

Experimental investigation on the vented flame and pressure behaviour of hydrogen-air mixtures

To explore the changes in pressure and flame propagation inside and outside the vessel when the pipe diameter does not match the vent diameter, and to check the conservatism of standards NFPA 68 and EN 14491 for this case, an experimental apparatus was utilized to investigate the influences of static activation pressure (0.7–1.75 bar) and vent diameter (30–70 mm) on the deflagration behavior of hydrogen–air mixtures (Φ: 0.6–1.4). The vented pressure, flame propagation, and pressure–flame interaction characteristics of hydrogen–air mixtures were observed and analyzed. Additionally, the conservatism of the calculated venting area under the experimental conditions of NPFA 68 and EN 14491 was verified. The results indicated that under an equivalence ratio of 0.6, the pressure-time curve inside the container exhibited only one peak (Pmax11). In the stoichiometric and fuel-rich states, the pressure-time curve inside the container exhibited two peaks attributed to the decrease in venting efficiency due to the secondary explosion inside the pipe, increasing the turbulence intensity within the container. When the static activation pressure is 0.7bar, the pressures of the three vent diameters of 30, 50 and 70 dropped by 11.34%, 24.38% and 26.86% respectively. And the Pmax11 at Φ= 1.0 and Φ= 1.4 are similar, while this phenomenon is not observed for other vent diameters. When the vent diameter was inconsistent with the duct diameter. the calculations of both standards were conservative. However, under these testing conditions (vent diameter: 30–70 mm, static activation pressure: 0.7–1.75 bar), the NPFA 68 calculations yield a conservatism range of 3.3 to 11, whereas EN14491 ranges from 1.6 to 15.7. The NPFA 68 results were more stable and concentrated, making these conditions more suitable for industry safety design in hydrogen venting.

Research on the dynamics of flame propagation and overpressure evolution in full-scale residential gas deflagration

To determine the effect of ignition height on indoor flame spread behavior and overpressure development, a comprehensive full-scale deflagration testing facility was established. Extensive experimental research was conducted within this facility. The findings indicate that indoor flame reignition and the occurrence of secondary explosions are most pronounced with intermediate ignition. Furthermore, the explosion overpressure generated during the reverse turn of shock wave propagation is greater than that produced by the forward turn. In comparison to the peak overpressure Pext in the master bedroom for top, middle, and bottom ignition, the peak overpressure Pext in the second bedroom increased by approximately 14.48 %, 15.04 %, and 19.20 %, respectively. When comparing middle ignition to top ignition, the propagation speed of shock waves in the kitchen balcony, restroom, second bedroom, and master bedroom was enhanced by 34.21 %, 40.85 %, 40.70 %, and 34.65 %, respectively. Furthermore, when comparing middle ignition to bottom ignition, the propagation speed of shock waves in these areas experienced a significant increase of 126.32 %, 124.39 %, 123.26 %, and 113.86 %, respectively. These research findings provide a theoretical foundation and empirical data to support the investigation and analysis of the causes of indoor gas explosion incidents.

Effects of Vent Size and Pressure on Hydrogen Explosion Dynamic Characteristics.

Explosion venting is an effective method to reduce the explosion damage; in order to study the mechanism of an explosion venting process in internal and external space, this paper investigates the influence of vent parameters on hydrogen-air explosion in a rectangular duct through numerical simulation. The model including the internal and external space is first constructed, and then the explosion dynamic behaviors of the full flow field are analyzed under different vent pressures and sizes. The study aims to reveal the coupling effect of the flame, pressure, and flow field on hydrogen explosion venting. The results indicate that the explosion intensity increases with the growth of the vent pressure and the reduction of the vent size. The maximum external overpressure increases to 2.6 and 2.3 times as the vent pressure increased to 10 times or vent size reduced by 90%. The flame and combustible gas mixture evolve from a mushroom cloud into a jet form as the vent size decreases, and vortexes formed at the flame front suppress flame propagation. However, the flame speed increases significantly as the flame passes the vent under the impact of larger pressure gradient, which results in a more violent turbulence intensity and secondary external explosion.

An Assessment of Explosive and Fire Risks from Fighter Jet Collision with Aircraft Carrier

AbstractThis paper presents a framework for evaluating the risk of fire and explosion resulting from potential collisions between fighter jets and aircraft carriers. An event tree is a chronological order of risk issues that may arise from an initial event. This study creates an initial crash scenario based on actual accident cases and risk issues, which are event tree items. Using these scenarios, collision analysis is conducted utilizing finite element analysis to investigate the structural response. It allows us to identify potential fuel leakage and assess whether the collision impact is potent enough to activate the fuze of any onboard weaponry. Consequently, a series of fire analyses pertinent to the respective situations is executed. These analyses aim to discern whether hazardous conditions such as secondary fires or explosions will likely ensue post-collision. By simulating a possible collision scenario between a fighter jet and a flight deck, the proposed method systematically explores and understands the probability and consequences of fire and explosion events following such collisions.

Dynamic response of spherical tanks subjected to the explosion of hydrogen-blended natural gas

Hydrogen is a renewable and clean energy and obtains increasing attention all around the world. Blending hydrogen into natural gas can promote hydrogen development and storage tank farms play an essential role in the storage of hydrogen-blended natural gas (HBNG). However, upon leakage from the tank, HBNG accumulates to create a vapor cloud and may explode, resulting in more severe consequences than natural gas. Furthermore, the explosion has the potential to trigger the domino effect in the spherical tank storage area, leading to multiple explosions. But little attention has been paid on this research issue. This article analyzes the dynamic response of the spherical tank exposed to HBNG explosions. The fluid–structure interaction theory is adopted to establish the whole finite element model. Meanwhile, the advanced Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) method can reduce mesh distortion and enhance computational accuracy, and the process of explosion is analyzed through the coupling of the Lagrangian mesh for the structure and the Eulerian mesh for the vapor cloud. Then, the algorithm is employed that couples shell elements with solid elements by utilizing a penalty function. Besides, the dynamic response of the spherical tank and pillar surfaces is analyzed in the trends of effective stress, displacement, velocity, and structural damage under various parameters, evaluating the energy absorbed by the spherical tank and pillar. Accordingly, the equipment damage caused by HBNG explosions considering possible damage caused by secondary explosions can be obtained. Then, the effects of the HBNG explosion chain on equipment are analyzed in tank areas. The dynamic response of structures in the explosion is closely related to the different hydrogen blended ratios, distances, and structural thickness, which significantly impact the effective stress of the spherical tank and pillar. Moreover, the damage caused by the HBNG explosion is more serious for pillars than the spherical tank, making the role of pillars crucial in supporting the spherical tank. The results obtained in this study can be used to support the design and safety operation of HBNG storage areas.

Investigation and CFD simulation of coal dust explosion accident in confined space: A case study of Gaohe Coal Mine Ventilation Air Methane oxidation power plant

The study investigates a coal dust explosion accident within a confined space in Shanxi. The accident was caused by coal dust coming into contact with a high-temperature heat source under the influence of the stack effect. Based on the investigation of the coal dust explosion accident, the study uses computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation to reconstruct the accident scenario. The simulation results provide a detailed depiction of coal dust movement within subsurface semi-enclosed confined spaces during the ventilation diffusion stage, influenced by the stack effect, and confirm the formation of a coal dust layer at the heat source due to coal dust deposition. The simulation results of the two explosion processes indicate that excessively high coal dust concentrations within confined spaces have a negative correlation with the development of explosion flames and the peak overpressure. It resulted in a secondary explosion with a relatively low concentration of coal dust, where the peak overpressure was five times that of the primary explosion. Comparative analysis between simulation results and actual investigations the accuracy of the CFD simulation in capturing the accident process and its characteristics, providing valuable insights for preventing and controlling coal dust explosion accidents.

Investigation on the flame and pressure behaviors of vented hydrogen-air deflagration from a duct-connected vessel: Effects of venting diameter and static activation pressure

To investigate the effect of venting diameter and static activation pressure on the explosion venting behavior of hydrogen-air mixtures, tests were performed utilizing the explosion venting test platform. The pressure and flame propagation characteristics under different venting diameters (30–70 mm) and pressures (0.1–0.4 MPa) were experimentally examined, and numerical calculation was employed to analyze the explosion venting characteristics of hydrogen at a stoichiometric ratio. Compared to fuel-lean and fuel-rich hydrogen conditions, the first peak pressure within the container is maximal under the hydrogen-air mixtures at a stoichiometric ratio. Under stoichiometric and fuel-rich hydrogen-air mixtures, pressure peak structures inside the container are both bimodal. When D = 30 mm, as Pstat is increased from 0.1 to 0.2 MPa, Pmax11 increases. However, when Pstat exceeds 0.2 MPa, with the increase of Pstat, Pmax11 remains at the level of 0.69 MPa, reaching the “venting bottleneck”. The discovery of this phenomenon is crucial for the research and development of the venting device for hydrogen storage equipment. Numerical simulations indicate the formation of the second peak pressure inside the container is primarily attributed to the intense obstruction of venting by secondary explosions within the duct.

Dynamics of gas composition and thermal behavior post explosions: An experimental investigation across varied initial concentrations

Gas explosion accidents are a leading cause of casualties in underground coal mines. This study investigates the variation patterns of explosion temperature and pressure under different initial gas concentration conditions using a 20 L explosion characteristic test system and high-precision sensors. Accurate post-explosion gas analyses were conducted using a GC9560 gas chromatograph. Our research aligns with global research, finding that initial gas concentrations within the range of 5.8%–13.3% generate maximum explosion pressures between 0.3 and 0.9 MPa, posing a significant overpressure hazard to humans. Comprehensive fitting analyses of various post-explosion gases reveal that at an initial gas concentration of 10.6%, the produced H2 can reach its lower explosion limit, indicating a risk of secondary explosions. Furthermore, post-explosion CO levels can peak at 9.87%, potentially causing poisoning or death, while elevated CO2 levels and diminished O2 concentrations could lead to asphyxiation. A unique observation at a 9.5% concentration was a secondary temperature rise, with the relationship between temperature delay, heating time, and initial gas concentration presenting a U-shaped pattern that mirrors theoretical expectations. This study advances the field by addressing research gaps in post-explosion gas analysis and emphasizing the necessity of precise monitoring and control of gas concentrations, thereby offering novel insights and substantial theoretical and practical contributions to the prevention of gas explosion incidents in underground coal mines.

Effects of the vent burst pressure on the duct-vented explosion of hydrogen-methane-air mixtures

The effects of the vent burst pressure (Pv) on the vented explosion of hydrogen-methane-air mixtures are investigated in a cylindrical vessel connected with a duct. The results demonstrate that Pv significantly affects the flame behaviors and overpressure inside and outside the venting configuration. The flame front velocity at the vent increases with Pv. Two pressure peaks, Pac, caused by the acoustically enhanced combustion, and Pse, caused by the secondary explosion, dominate within the vessel at Pv ＜ 132 kPa and Pv ≥ 132 kPa, respectively. The maximum overpressure (Pmax) inside the duct increases with Pv. The maximum pressure rise (dP/dt) of the duct is always higher than that of the vessel. As Pv increases, increased turbulence of unburned gases within the duct results in higher dP/dt. Exit flame speed increases with Pv. When Pv ≥ 153 kPa, “Mach disk” appears outside the relief duct. Three pressure peaks, Pa, Pb, and Pext, due to vent failure, the secondary explosion, and the external explosion, respectively, occur in the external pressure curve. Pb dominates outside the configuration except for Pv = 153 kPa.

Cause analysis of secondary explosion accident in Hushan Gold Mine, Shandong Province, China based on HFACS-CM model

Explosion accidents often occur during mining, especially sudden secondary explosions, which pose a serious threat to the life and property safety of employees. Based on the development process and consequences of typical secondary explosion accidents in Hushan Gold Mine, Qixia City, Shandong Province, China, this paper uses accident analysis model and cone measurement calculation method to determine the direct cause of secondary explosion accidents. The main conclusions are as follows: The HFACS-CM model is used to analyze the causes of secondary explosion from five aspects: external environment, organizational influence, unsafe leadership, the prerequisite conditions of unsafe behavior and unsafe behavior. It is found that the CO ignition explosion in the mining process is the direct cause of secondary explosion. Then, combined with the experimental data of the cone measuring instrument, the field CO amount was calculated, and the MCO ≥ 101.4 m3 was obtained, indicating that the CO production did reach the condition of explosion range, and the analysis results of the model were verified. Through HFACS-CM model analysis and calculation verification, the key causes of secondary explosion accidents in such mines are found and lessons are learned, which provides an effective reference for the effective prevention of deflagration accidents in the field of mine safety.

ІДЕНТИФІКАЦІЯ ФАКТОРІВ, ЯКІ ВИЗНАЧАЮТЬ БЕЗПЕКУ ВІКОН ПРИ ДІЇ ВИБУХОВОЇ ХВИЛІ

The article is devoted to the definition and identification of the main factors that determine the safety of residential windows with regard to the blast wave. The author analyzes the regulatory framework that defines the requirements for the safety of window structures in the design of residential buildings. It has been determined that the building codes of Ukraine regulate and standardize two aspects of window safety: protection against intrusion by unauthorized persons and protection against people falling out of residential buildings. The issue of window safety in the event of a blast wave is not currently defined in the regulatory framework. The article considers modern approaches and methods of researching the resistance of windows to blast waves, which are currently represented by the works of scientists from Germany, Great Britain, China, and Ukraine. The location and most possible failure modes of a simple window are determined. The paper analyzes the performance of different types of glass under blast wave action and demonstrates the failure mode of laminated tempered glass. Ways to improve the safety of window structures during a blast wave are presented. Based on the analysis, the factors that affect the safety of windows, in particular when exposed to blast waves, are identified. The factors affecting the safety of windows under the influence of blast waves are divided into four groups. The first group of factors is the area of glass areas of the window. The second group of factors is the stability of the glass unit, which is determined by the type and thickness of the glass, its strength, and the number of glass sheets in the package. The third group of factors is determined by the total area of the window and the quality of its fixing. The fourth group of factors is determined by the location of the building and its proximity to important infrastructure facilities and objects of strategic importance. The necessity of developing a methodology for selecting windows with rational glazing parameters and developing an indicator of the protection of the population in residential buildings from secondary explosion factors is determined.

Multiple blast resistance enhancement through negative-mass meta-honeycombs with multi-resonator

Conventional honeycomb materials are difficult to resist multiple blast because the enormous energy generated by the explosion would cause plastic deformation of the material, which weakens the strength of the structure. In this paper, a novel meta-honeycomb is designed by adding local resonance system to hierarchical cells, which is based on the multi-resonator-enhanced bandgap property, to withstand multiple blast. This meta-honeycomb reverses the energy absorption mode of traditional honeycomb materials; that is, the energy absorption by plastic deformation of the material becomes the reflection of the stress wave through the equivalent negative mass property generated by the local resonance system, which significantly reduces the deformation of the material and the reaction force at the support under impact loads. In particular, for the secondary explosion loading, the maximum deformation of the meta-honeycomb is reduced by 74% compared with the traditional hierarchical honeycomb. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the design of meta-honeycomb can be optimized by coupling the bandgap generated by the negative mass property, thereby improving the energy absorption efficiency. This research result provides a new concept for the design of blast-proof materials, which has a high potential for a wide range of engineering applications.

Effect of alkyl glycoside surfactant on the explosion characteristics of bituminous coal: Experimental and theoretical discussion

To reduce the risk of secondary dust formation and explosions of coal dust captured by spray with surfactant in coal mine working faces, the influence of alkyl polyglucoside (APG) on the explosion characteristics of bituminous coal was studied. The thermokinetic behavior of the APG-coal compound system was analyzed, and the chemical structural evolutions that occurred in coal powder before and after APG treatment were determined. Finally, the mechanism of effect by which APG affects bituminous coal explosion was discussed. The results showed that the carbonyl structure content of samples increased after APG soaking treatment, and the oxidation process of coal powder changed. Coal dust soaked in APG solutions reached a maximum explosion pressure earlier than the raw coal, resulting in a decrease of the boundary concentration. The maximum explosion pressure slightly decreased and the explosion induction time was extended. Additionally, the thermal decomposition rate of the APG-coal mixture system decreased and the maximum heat flow increased. The mechanisms by which APG affects bituminous coal dust explosion were summarized to be a barrier effect and an equivalent combustion effect. The results of this research serve as a reference for coal dust explosions control and for the preparation of new coal dust suppressants were provided.

Cohesional behaviours in pyroclastic material and the implications for deposit architecture

Pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) are hazardous, multiphase currents of heterogeneous volcanic material and gas. Moisture (as liquid or gas) can enter a PDC through external (e.g., interaction with bodies of water) or internal (e.g., initial eruptive activity style) processes, and the presence of moisture can be recorded within distinct deposit layers. We use analogue experiments to explore the behaviour of pyroclastic material with increasing addition of moisture from 0.00–10.00% wt. Our results show that (1) the cohesivity of pyroclastic material changes with the addition of small amounts of moisture, (2) small increases in moisture content change the material properties from a free-flowing material to a non-flowable material, (3) changes in moisture can affect the formation of gas escape structures and fluidisation profiles in pyroclastic material, (4) gas flow through a deposit can lead to a moisture profile and resulting mechanical heterogeneity within the deposit and (5) where gas escape structure growth is hindered by cohesivity driven by moisture, pressure can increase and release in an explosive fashion. This work highlights how a suite of varied gas escape morphologies can form within pyroclastic deposits resulting from moisture content heterogeneity, explaining variation in gas escape structures as well as providing a potential mechanism for secondary explosions.

Numerical analysis of the effect of ventilation door on the propagation characteristics of gas explosion shock waves

Ventilation door are commonly found in tunnels and other underground engineering ventilation structures, disaster periods using its explosion isolation, explosion relief, wind regulation characteristics for disaster prevention and mitigation is of great significance. This paper numerically simulates the propagation characteristics of the gas explosion shock wave in the nearby tunnel when the ventilation door are opened at different degrees, and analyzes the influence mechanism of the opening degree on the change law of the shock wave overpressure distribution in the nearby tunnel. The results show that the shock wave forms a strong turbulence area (high pressure area) on both sides in front of the ventilation door, and the area range and the overpressure value decrease with the increase of the opening degree; the ventilation door reduce the intensity of the shock wave, so that the overpressure behind the ventilation door decreases, and the smaller the opening degree, the lower the overpressure behind the ventilation door. The secondary explosion formed shock wave and the ventilation door reflected shock wave meet to form a stronger shock wave, which leads to different opening degrees of ventilation door, its before, after the roadway and after the bifurcation of the main roadway in the measured points of the overpressure change curve is different, the main difference is that the peak overpressure for the first wave or the second wave peak. The peak overpressure in the tunnel before and after the ventilation door decreases and increases respectively with the increase of the opening length, and the overall decay of the peak overpressure at 5 m and 10 m before the ventilation door is 49.56% and 4.04% respectively and only has an effect on the peak overpressure in main tunnel within 20 m from the bifurcation.

Influence of vent duct bend angle on inner dust explosion

A visualized tank was applied to carry out explosion venting experiments to investigate the effect of the bend angle of the vent duct on the venting dynamics process during the dust explosion. By changing the bend angle of the duct and comparing the conventional ductless and straight duct venting, the distribution law of venting overpressure and the development process of flame shape in the duct and container were analysed. There are typically three-peaked features in the duct caused by film-breaking shock waves, secondary explosions, and continuous combustion of the flame in the container. The secondary explosion strength in the duct increases with the bend angle, which exacerbates the severity of the explosion compared to conventional ductless or straight duct explosions. In the case of bend venting, as the bend angle of the duct increases, the Pmax and the (dP/dt)max all show an increasing trend in the container, and the Pred,max difference on both sides of the bend is positively correlated with the bend angle. In addition, with an increase in the bend angle, the total reaction time in the container gradually decreased, namely, the flame duration shortened.

Secondary Explosion Characteristics and Chemical Kinetics of CH4/Air Induced by a High-Temperature Surface

Secondary Explosion Characteristics and Chemical Kinetics of CH₄/Air Induced by a High-Temperature Surface

A Novel Framework for Consequence Prediction of Battery Thermal Runaway Failure Hazards

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely utilized for energy storage in a broad range of applications, such as handheld electronics, emobility, spaceflight vehicles, etc. Thermal runaway (TR) and subsequent combustion of LIBs represent several significant hazards to consumers, including substantial energy release, jet flames, toxic gases, airborne particulates, and secondary explosions. Numerous experimental investigations in the literature have measured the energy release and chemical composition of off-gasses during LIB TR, but little theoretical work has been completed to this end. The current study focuses on prediction of product chemical composition, flame temperature, and energy release for LIBs undergoing TR failure through implementation of chemical equilibrium analyses (CEA). Theoretical calculations for various LIB electrolyte decomposition and combustion scenarios were compared to data available in the literature. Excellent agreement was observed between predicted and experimental measured heats of combustion for plain LIB electrolytes, indicating the global thermodynamic properties are well captured by the modeling approach. Theoretical product gas production (i.e., moles of gas per mole of electrolyte) and composition were compared to experimentally measured values from accelerated rate calorimetry experiments. The results indicate that general trends are well captured by the CEA modeling approach developed here and that the standard experimental protocols documented within the literature can be improved. Similar theoretical predictions for battery failure experiments (product gas composition and energy release) are also presented. The novel modeling framework presented here can be used in future work to evaluate LIB failure hazards for existing systems and to evaluate the safety of future designs. In addition, this modeling approach provides unique insight into how adjusting global battery chemistry (cathode, electrolyte, etc.) changes the potential hazards produced battery thermal runaway and failure. Figure 1