Secondary Deciduous Forest Research Articles

Changes in physical properties and carbon stocks of gray forest soils in the southern part of Moscow region during postagrogenic evolution

Changes in carbon stocks and physical properties of gray forest soils during their postagrogenic evolution have been studied in the succession chronosequence comprising an arable, lands abandoned 6, 15, and 30 years ago; and a secondary deciduous forest (Experimental Field Station of the Institute of Physicochemical and Biological Problems of Soil Science, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow region). It is found that carbon stocks in the upper 60-cm soil layer gain with increasing period of abandonment, from 6.17 kg C/m2 on the arable land to 8.81 kg C/m2 in the forest soil, which represents the final stage of postagrogenic succession. The most intensive carbon accumulation occurs in the upper layer of the former plow (0- to 10-cm) horizon. It is shown that the self-restoration of gray forest soils is accompanied by a reliable decrease of bulk density in the upper 10-cm layer from 1.31 ± 0.01 g/cm3 on the arable to 0.97 ± 0.02 g/cm3 in the forest. In the former plow horizon of the arable–abandoned land–forest succession series, the portion of macroaggregates increases from 73.6 to 88.5%; the mean weighted diameter of aggregates, by 1.6 times; and the coefficient of aggregation, by 3.8 times. Thus, the removal of lands from agricultural use results in a gradual restoration of their natural structure, improvement of soil agronomical properties, and carbon sequestration in the upper part of the soil profile.

Impacts of human activities on species diversity, species composition and cover of pteridophytes : A comparison of natural evergreen broad-leaved forests and secondary deciduous broad-leaved forests in south Yunnan, China

Impacts of human activities on species diversity, species composition and cover of pteridophytes : A comparison of natural evergreen broad-leaved forests and secondary deciduous broad-leaved forests in south Yunnan, China

Relation between species composition and human disturbances in secondary deciduous broad-leaved forests in an agricultural landscape in the southeastern part of Jilin Province, Northeast China

Relation between species composition and human disturbances in secondary deciduous broad-leaved forests in an agricultural landscape in the southeastern part of Jilin Province, Northeast China

长白山地低山区土壤动物群落特征及其对环境因子变化的响应

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 长白山地低山区土壤动物群落特征及其对环境因子变化的响应 DOI: 10.5846/stxb201511232368 作者: 作者单位: 东北师范大学地理科学学院,东北师范大学地理科学学院,东北师范大学地理科学学院 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 国家自然科学基金项目（41471211） Community characteristics of soil fauna in the low-mountain of the Changbai Mountains and its respond to the change of environmental factors Author: Affiliation: School of Geographical Science, Northeast Normal University, Changchun,, Fund Project: National Natural Science Foundation of China（41471211） 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:为探讨长白山地低山区土壤动物群落特征及其对环境因子变化的响应，分别于2014年春季（5月）、夏季（7月）及秋季（9月）对长白山地低山区的次生针阔叶混交林、次生落叶阔叶林、蒙古栎林和耕地土壤动物进行研究。研究表明，4个生境共获土壤动物58类，30445只，隶属3门6纲22目52科（亚目）。各生境大型、中小型土壤动物具有一定的差异性，且各生境季节变化不同。总体来看，耕地生境土壤动物密度与类群数明显低于其它3个生境，大型土壤动物的密度季节变化较显著，中小型土壤动物的密度和类群数的季节波动均较大。次生落叶阔叶林生境大型、中小型土壤动物群落多样性指数和丰富度指数均高于其它3个生境，耕地最低。中小型土壤动物多样性指数、丰富度指数季节波动较大，春季、夏季与秋季之间差异性较大，大型土壤动物季节波动较小。通过对大型、中小型土壤动物与13种环境因子进行Pearson相关分析可知，大型土壤动物对土壤温度和土壤湿度具有正向响应，其密度、类群数与土壤温度具有显著正相关关系，中小型土壤动物的密度、类群数对土壤湿度具有显著正向响应；土壤动物对pH的响应程度较低，对有机质具有显著正向响应；土壤动物对全效养分N、P、K的响应程度高，大型土壤动物的密度对速效养分N、P、K的响应程度高，中小型土壤动物类群数对速效养分N、P、K的响应程度高，对Ca、Mg的响应程度较低。 Abstract:The soil fauna community characteristics of the lower Changbai Mountains were investigated, as well as their response to changes in environmental factors. Soil fauna from four habitats, including the secondary boreonemoral zone, secondary deciduous broad-leaf forest, Mongolia oak forest, and farmland in Changbai low-mountain area, were studied in the spring (May), summer (July) and fall (September) of 2014. Overall, 30445 individuals were captured. These belonged to 3 phyla, 6 classes, 22 orders, and 52 families. The soil fauna density and their group numbers differed among the habitats with seasonal fluctuations. The structure of the farmland soil fauna community was the simplest among all habitats. Seasonal fluctuations of macro-fauna density were high. For micro-fauna, both the seasonal fluctuation in density and group numbers were high. The biodiversity analyses showed that in these biotopes, the soil fauna community in the secondary deciduous broad-leaf forest has the highest diversity and richness indices. In contrast, the diversity and richness indices were the lowest in the farmland habitat. Seasonal fluctuations in diversity and richness indices were high for micro-fauna. The differences in these indices between spring, summer, and fall were apparent, although less profound for the macro-fauna. Using Pearson correlation analyses between the macro- or micro-fauna and 13 soil environmental factors, we showed that the response of macro-fauna to soil temperature and soil humidity was positive. Especially the macro-fauna density and soil temperature have an obvious positive correlation, as well as the micro-fauna density and group number and soil temperature. Furthermore, the response of soil fauna to pH was weak, but soil fauna and organic matter had an obvious positive correlation. Finally, the response of soil fauna to Total nitrogen, total phosphorus and total potassium was strong, as well as the response from macro-fauna to available N, P, and K. Finally, the relationship between micro-fauna group number and available N, P, and K was strong, but weaker for Ca and Mg, and with a highly negative correlation to Mn. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

Changes in understory species occurrence of a secondary broadleaved forest after mass mortality of oak trees under deer foraging pressure.

The epidemic of mass mortality of oak trees by Japanese oak wilt has affected secondary deciduous broadleaved forests that have been used as coppices in Japan. The dieback of oak trees formed gaps in the crown that would be expected to enhance the regeneration of shade-intolerant pioneer species. However, foraging by sika deer Cervus nippon has also affected forest vegetation, and the compound effects of both on forest regeneration should be considered when they simultaneously occur. A field study was conducted in Kyôto City, Japan to investigate how these compound effects affected the vegetation of the understory layer of these forests. The presence/absence of seedlings and saplings was observed for 200 quadrats sized 5 m ×5 m for each species in 1992, before the mass mortality and deer encroachment, and in 2014 after these effects. A hierarchical Bayesian model was constructed to explain the occurrence, survival, and colonization of each species with their responses to the gaps that were created, expanded, or affected by the mass mortality of Quercus serrata trees. The species that occurred most frequently in 1992, Eurya japonica, Quercus glauca, and Cleyera japonica, also had the highest survival probabilities. Deer-unpalatable species such as Symplocos prunifolia and Triadica sebifera had higher colonization rates in the gaps, while the deer-palatable species Aucuba japonica had the smallest survival probability. The gaps thus promoted the colonization of deer-unpalatable plant species such as Symplocos prunifolia and Triadica sebifera. In the future, such deer-unpalatable species may dominate gaps that were created, expanded, or affected by the mass mortality of oak trees.

Comparison of fine-scale spatial genetic structure of two sympatricRhododendronshrub species in forest habitat having different seed weights: A case study

AbstractRestricted seed dispersal is one of the most prevalent determinants of spatial genetic structure (SGS) at a fine spatial scale within a plant population.Rhododendron kaempferiandR. semibarbatumare common and coexistent Ericaceous species in the shrub layer of secondary deciduous broad-leaved forests in the northern Kanto District, central Japan. The two species have entomophilous flowers and are thought to have similar pollination styles. However,R. kaempferiproduces threefold heavier seeds thanR. semibarbatum. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that the intensity of SGS was stronger inR. kaempferithan inR. semibarbatumin a forest stand. We comparatively examined the SGS for 73 individuals ofR. kaempferiand 36 individuals ofR. semibarbatumby using highly variable nuclear microsatellite loci. The analysis revealed significant SGS in both species at the shortest distance (<3 m); a measure to quantify SGS showed a counterintuitive result:R. semibarbatumexhibited stronger SGS thanR. kaempferi. This result might be explained by the ecological consequences ofR. semibarbatumproducing lighter seeds, which might have greater dispersal efficacy, but its safe sites could be more restricted than those ofR. kaempferi; in contrast,R. kaempferiproducing heavier seeds might have more limited seed dispersal, but its safe sites for seedling establishment could be more prevalent than those forR. semibarbatum. The different strategies for the trade-off between seed weight and site selection of the twoRhododendronspecies might be reflected in the difference in the intensity of SGS in this study plot.

How do changes in forest stand development affect frugivorous bird abundance and fruit removal in warm-temperate forests of western Japan?

To better understand how plant–frugivore interactions change in relation to forest stand development, we investigated the abundance and species composition of frugivorous bird assemblages, and their fruit removal over several years in three warm-temperate forest stands. All stands were located in an urban forested area of western Japan, and each was at a different developmental stage: a secondary deciduous broad-leaved forest stand (DB), an evergreen broad-leaved forest stand where an evergreen oak became dominant recently (EB-I), and a well-developed evergreen broad-leaved forest stand (EB-II). Although the species richness and Shannon diversity indices of frugivorous birds did not vary among the three stands, the abundance of birds was almost always greatest in the EB-II stand, lowest in the DB stand, and intermediate in the EB-I stand. Generalized linear mixed model analyses using data on monthly fruit availability and the number of frugivorous birds observed in censuses showed that forest stand differences had a significant effect on the abundance of frugivorous birds, whereas fruit availability had no significant positive influence on bird abundance. Fruit removal was most intensive in the EB-II stand, where both fruit and bird abundance were highest, followed by the EB-I stand, where bird abundance was intermediate but fruit abundance was lowest. Our study demonstrates that increasing structural complexity during forest stand development likely had positive effects on the abundance of frugivorous birds, which in turn influenced fruit removal in this urban forested area. Hence, a positive feedback mechanism of plant–bird interactions would exist for the development of forest stands.

Invaders do not require high resource levels to maintain physiological advantages in a temperate deciduous forest.

Non-native, invasive plants are commonly typified by trait strategies associated with high resource demands and plant invasions are often thought to be dependent upon site resource availability or disturbance. However, the invasion of shade-tolerant woody species into deciduous forests of the Eastern United States seems to contradict such generalization, as growth in this ecosystem is strongly constrained by light and, secondarily, nutrient stress. In a factorial manipulation of light and soil nitrogen availability, we established an experimental resource gradient in a secondary deciduous forest to test whether three common, woody, invasive species displayed increased metabolic performance and biomass production compared to six co-occurring woody native species, and whether these predicted differences depend upon resource supply. Using hierarchical Bayesian models of photosynthesis that included leaf trait effects, we found that invasive species exhibited functional strategies associated with higher rates of carbon gain. Further, invader metabolic and growth-related attributes were more responsive to increasing light availability than those of natives, but did not fall below average native responses even in low light. Surprisingly, neither group showed direct trait or growth responses to soil N additions. However, invasive species showed increased photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiencies with decreasing N availability, while that of natives remained constant. Although invader advantage over natives was amplified in higher resource conditions in this forest, our results indicate that some invasive species can maintain physiological advantages over co-occurring natives regardless of resource conditions.

Litterfall and nutrient return in moist evergreen broad-leaved primary forest and mixed subtropical secondary deciduous broad-leaved forest in China

Litterfall plays an important role in carbon and nutrient cycling of a forest ecosystem which is generally affected by climate, vegetation, forest type and age. The majority of the subtropical forests of China are occurring in nutrient poor environment, and thus there is a need to understand the role of litterfall on the recycling of C and nutrients in these forests for their proper management. We measured litter production, and carbon and nutrient return in an evergreen broad-leaved primary forest (Mt. Ailao, SW China) and a deciduous broad-leaved secondary forest (Mt. Damei, East China). The annual litterfall productions were 1124 and 490 g m−2 at the primary evergreen forest and secondary deciduous forest, respectively. Carbon return in primary evergreen forest was approximately three times greater than that in secondary deciduous forest. Litter N concentrations in the secondary deciduous forest were higher than that of the primary evergreen forest and consequently, the use efficiency of N of the secondary deciduous forest was lower than the primary evergreen forest. This reflects a stronger nutrient conservation mechanism in the primary evergreen forest than in the secondary forest.

Comparison of Airborne LiDAR and Satellite Hyperspectral Remote Sensing to Estimate Vascular Plant Richness in Deciduous Mediterranean Forests of Central Chile

The Andes foothills of central Chile are characterized by high levels of floristic diversity in a scenario, which offers little protection by public protected areas. Knowledge of the spatial distribution of this diversity must be gained in order to aid in conservation management. Heterogeneous environmental conditions involve an important number of niches closely related to species richness. Remote sensing information derived from satellite hyperspectral and airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data can be used as proxies to generate a spatial prediction of vascular plant richness. This study aimed to estimate the spatial distribution of plant species richness using remote sensing in the Andes foothills of the Maule Region, Chile. This region has a secondary deciduous forest dominated by Nothofagus obliqua mixed with sclerophyll species. Floristic measurements were performed using a nested plot design with 60 plots of 225 m2 each. Multiple predictors were evaluated: 30 topographical and vegetation structure indexes from LiDAR data, and 32 spectral indexes and band transformations from the EO1-Hyperion sensor. A random forest algorithm was used to identify relevant variables in richness prediction, and these variables were used in turn to obtain a final multiple linear regression predictive model (Adjusted R2 = 0.651; RSE = 3.69). An independent validation survey was performed with significant results (Adjusted R2 = 0.571, RMSE = 5.05). Selected variables were statistically significant: catchment slope, altitude, standard deviation of slope, average slope, Multiresolution Ridge Top Flatness index (MrRTF) and Digital Crown Height Model (DCM). The information provided by LiDAR delivered the best predictors, whereas hyperspectral data were discarded due to their low predictive power.

年輪解析による落葉広葉樹二次林の成立過程の推定

年輪解析による落葉広葉樹二次林の成立過程の推定

Landscape composition influences abundance patterns and habitat use of three ungulate species in fragmented secondary deciduous tropical forests, Mexico

Secondary forests are extensive in the tropics. Currently, these plant communities are the available habitats for wildlife and in the future they will possibly be some of the most wide-spread ecosystems world-wide. To understand the potential role of secondary forests for wildlife conservation, three ungulate species were studied: Mazama temama, Odocoileus virginianus and Pecari tajacu. We analyzed their relative abundance and habitat use at two spatial scales: (1) Local, where three different successional stages of tropical deciduous forest were compared, and (2) Landscape, where available habitats were compared in terms of landscape composition (proportion of forests, pastures and croplands within 113 ha). To determine the most important habitat-related environmental factors influencing the Sign Encounter Rate (SER) of the three ungulate species, 11 physical, anthropogenic and vegetation variables were simultaneously analyzed through model selection using Akaike’s Information Criterion. We found, that P. tajacu and O. virginianus mainly used early successional stages, while M. temama used all successional stages in similar proportions. The latter species, however, used early vegetation stages only when they were located in landscapes mainly covered by forest (97%). P. tajacu and O. virginianus also selected landscapes covered essentially by forests, although they required smaller percentages of forest (86%). All ungulate species avoided landscape fragments covered by pastures. For all three species, landscape composition and human activities were the variables that best explained SER. We concluded that landscape is the fundamental scale for ungulate management, and that secondary forests are potentially important landscape elements for ungulate conservation.

Woody species diversity in forest plantations in a mountainous region of Beijing, China: effects of sampling scale and species selection.

The role of forest plantations in biodiversity conservation has gained more attention in recent years. However, most work on evaluating the diversity of forest plantations focuses only on one spatial scale; thus, we examined the effects of sampling scale on diversity in forest plantations. We designed a hierarchical sampling strategy to collect data on woody species diversity in planted pine (Pinus tabuliformis Carr.), planted larch (Larix principis-rupprechtii Mayr.), and natural secondary deciduous broadleaf forests in a mountainous region of Beijing, China. Additive diversity partition analysis showed that, compared to natural forests, the planted pine forests had a different woody species diversity partitioning pattern at multi-scales (except the Simpson diversity in the regeneration layer), while the larch plantations did not show multi-scale diversity partitioning patterns that were obviously different from those in the natural secondary broadleaf forest. Compare to the natural secondary broadleaf forests, the effects of planted pine forests on woody species diversity are dependent on the sampling scale and layers selected for analysis. Diversity in the planted larch forest, however, was not significantly different from that in the natural forest for all diversity components at all sampling levels. Our work demonstrated that the species selected for afforestation and the sampling scales selected for data analysis alter the conclusions on the levels of diversity supported by plantations. We suggest that a wide range of scales should be considered in the evaluation of the role of forest plantations on biodiversity conservation.

北関東における落葉採取林と未採取林のオサムシ科甲虫群集

北関東における落葉採取林と未採取林のオサムシ科甲虫群集

Interactive effects of chronic deer browsing and canopy gap disturbance on forest successional dynamics

The interaction of browsing by white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and canopy gap disturbances may affect long‐term tree composition and lead to significant changes in forest structure. We used an individual‐based forest gap model (ZELIG) to better understand the aggregate and interactive impacts of these processes on the long‐term (200 years) successional dynamics of a mesic deciduous forest. We parameterized ZELIG to: (1) simulate successional dynamics within a temperate deciduous secondary forest typical of eastern North America; (2) simulate browsing impacts by white‐tailed deer; and (3) simulate gap‐scale disturbance of variable size and frequency. Our estimates of browsing impacts by species were derived from a 20‐year, four‐hectare deer exclusion study. Model calibration matched observed tree species composition, density by size class, and total basal area (39.92 m2 ha−1 vs. 37.13 m2 ha−1). Simulated deer browsing had little impact on total basal area over two centuries. However, deer browsing had substantial impacts on community composition, creating a less diverse understory, lower species richness, and decreased abundance of Quercus species, while retaining the dominance of Liriodendron tulipifera. Simulated gap disturbances exacerbated the impacts of chronic deer browsing and these impacts became stronger over time. Our analyses suggest that recent increases in white‐tailed deer density within many forests of eastern North America will result in altered community dynamics that persist beyond the sapling level, and that any increases in overstory disturbance frequency will exacerbate these impacts.

Growth, productivity and quality of Megathyrsus maximus under cover from Gliricidia sepium

The effect of tree canopy on the growth, productivity and forage quality of Megathyrsus maximus and changes in soil properties were evaluated over three seasonal periods. Four adjacent plots (15 m × 17 m each) in a tropical secondary deciduous forest having 12 years of growth and dominated by Gliricidia sepium were randomly assigned to two treatments: removal of trees (SCA) in two of the plots and leaving trees intact (COA) in the other two. In all plots, M. maximus was planted with 50 cm spacing among plants. Tree removal significantly increased the incident photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, P < 0.001) and grass size (12.5 % in height, P < 0.01, and 16.5 % in clump diameter, P < 0.05), but did not significantly affect any other variable. Season significantly affected grass height (P < 0.003), tiller number (P < 0.001), clump diameter (P < 0.001), net CO2 assimilation rate (P < 0.001), forage biomass production (P < 0.003), and acid detergent fiber content (P = 0.033). Primary soil changes after 1 year of establishment of the grass were the decline by 3 % in organic carbon (P = 0.03), and qualitative changes in soil structure, regardless of tree presence. Results are consistent with the ability of M. maximus to tolerate shade. We conclude that under the conditions of the study there was no evidence for a negative effect of tree canopy on M. maximus mediated by a reduction in PAR.

Flower-visiting insect communities on two closely related Rhododendron species flowering in different seasons

To determine the effects of flowering season on the community structure and dynamics of flower visitors, I examined annual and hourly variation in flower-visiting insects on two Rhododendron species in a deciduous secondary forest in central Japan. Rhododendron reticulatum flowers from late March to mid-April, whereas R. macrosepalum flowers from late April to late May. Bagged and hand-pollination experiments indicated that outcrossing by flower visitors was important for the pollination of both R. reticulatum and R. macrosepalum. Pollinator and pollen limitation were detected in both Rhododendron species, although the extent of both differed between the two species. The flowers of both Rhododendron species were visited by insects of diverse taxa, including Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera. The composition of flower visitors differed between R. reticulatum and R. macrosepalum, although a few species visited both of them. The beefly Bombyliusmajor (Diptera: Bombyliidae) most frequently visited R. reticulatum, whereas the bumblebee Bombusardensardens (Hymenoptera: Apidae) most frequently visited R. macrosepalum. Hourly changes in the number of flower visitors also differed between R. reticulatum and R. macrosepalum; insects visited R. reticulatum flowers less frequently in the morning than in the afternoon, whereas insect visitations to R. macrosepalum flowers did not differ between morning and afternoon. Differences in both insect community structure and hourly changes of visitations between the two Rhododendron species occurred annually and may be related to the life history of the abundant visitor species as well as flowering phenology.

Seasonal dynamics in leaf area index in three typical temperate montane forests of China: a comparison of multi-observation methods

Aims Leaf area index(LAI)is one of the most frequently used parameters for analysis of canopy structure and forest productivity.It can be determined by direct or indirect methods.Sources of errors in indirect LAI measure-ments with optical instruments include non-photosynthetic components,element clumping,and a topography ef-fect.Our objective was to find an appropriate method for evaluating LAI and its seasonal dynamics in typical temperate montane forest.Methods We examined the applicability of three indirect methods(LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer,CI-110 plant canopy analyzer and digital hemispherical photograph(DHP))and one direct method(litterfall)to determine the seasonal dynamics of LAI in three typical temperate forests in Dongling Mountain of Beijing.The forests in-cluded a secondary deciduous broad-leaved forest dominated by Quercus mongolica and two plantations(Larix gmelinii var.principis-rupprechtii and Pinus tabuliformis).These represent deciduous broad-leaved forest,de-ciduous needle-leaved forest and evergreen needle-leaved forest,respectively.The optically-based effective leaf area index(LAIe)values were corrected to eliminate wood elements and clumping effects and then compared with the direct measurement of LAI based on litter collection.Important findings For all the three forests,the LAI seasonal dynamic shows a uni-modal pattern with a peak in July.Optically-based LAIe underestimated the amplitude of the seasonal dynamics.Wood element elimination can strengthen the seasonal sensitivity of LAI,especially in the seasonally distinct deciduous forest.The order of LAIe measured by the three optically-based methods in three stands is LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzerDHP CI-110 plant canopy analyzer.There was good correspondence with the direct measurement LAI for the corrected LAI of LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer and DHP.The correction method based on gap-size distribution was ap-propriate for the LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer and the method based on both gap fraction and gap-size distri-bution for DHP.Considering economics and practical convenience,we recommend DHP for LAI evaluation in these temperate montane forests.

Structure and growth of a secondary deciduous broad-leaf forest in Iwaki, Fukushima Prefecture

Structure and growth of a secondary deciduous broad-leaf forest in Iwaki, Fukushima Prefecture

Differences in tree community among secondary deciduous oak forests in rural and residential areas in the Hokuriku District of Japan

Tree communities of secondary deciduous oak forests were surveyed in 13 forests (two in residential and 11 in rural areas) in the warm temperate Hokuriku District of Japan to understand the effects of fragmentation, location (residential or rural), and logging history. The rural forest logged most recently, where diameter at breast height was smallest, had a distinct canopy tree (>12 m) community due to an increase of trees from wind-dispersed seeds. The rural forest with gaps and the two residential forests also had different canopy tree communities from the other rural forests. In contrast, the tree community in the shrub layer (≤6 m) was not influenced by logging history and the existence of gaps but by location only. This was caused by an increase in evergreen trees (consequently causing poor light conditions on the forest floor) and a decrease in trees from wind-dispersed seeds in the residential forests. Among the rural forest patches, no negative effects of forest size and isolation on density of tree individuals were detected for any seed dispersal mode. This may be because many forest patches were arranged at distances of 10–50 m from neighboring patches in rural areas, which enables tree species with low dispersal ability to disperse their seeds to neighboring forests. However, as found in the residential forests, long-term abandonment and extensive fragmentation may gradually reduce tree diversity through loss of tree species with shade intolerance and low seed dispersal ability.