Content Of Secondary Compounds Research Articles

Recent literature on lichens—207

Adawadkar, B. & U. Makhija. 2007. New species and new records of Graphis from India with partially carbonized exciples and transseptate ascospores. Mycotaxon 99: 303– 326. [Key to 57 spp. New: G. alboglaucescens sp. nov. (Karnataka), G. eburnea sp. nov. (Karnataka), G. filiformis sp. nov. (Karnataka), G. meghalayaensis sp. nov. (Meghalaya), G. salacinilongiramea sp. nov. (Karnataka), G. subvittata sp. nov. (Karnataka) and G. valparaiensis sp. nov. (Tamil Nadu). Nine other taxa are new to India.] Adler, M. & S. Calvelo. 2007. Flavoparmelia amplexa and F. springtonensis (Parmeliaceae) new to the Americas and additions to the lichen flora of Argentina. In I. Karnefelt & A. Thell (eds.), Lichenological contributions in honour of David Galloway. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 95: 121–129. [New distributional notes on 9 taxa: Hypotrachyna (5), Flavoparmelia (2), Xanthoparmelia (1), Parmotrema (1).] Ahti, T., J. A. Elix & D. O. Ovstedal. 2007. A new Cladonia from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas). In I. Karnefelt & A. Thell (eds.), Lichenological contributions in honour of David Galloway. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 95: 131–135. [New: C. neozelandica var. lewis-smithii var. nov.] Aptroot, A. 2007. Davidgallowaya cornutispora, an enigmatic lichen from New Guinea. In I. Karnefelt & A. Thell (eds.), Lichenological contributions in honour of David Galloway. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 95: 137–145. [New: Davidgallowaya gen. nov., D. cornutispora sp. nov. The new genus and species, assigned to the Parmeliaceae, has a hollow thallus with a pitted lower surface and sickle-shaped ascospores.] ———, L. Umana, J. L. Chaves & M. T. Trest. 2006. A first assessment of the Ticolichen Biodiversity inventory in Costa Rica: three new squamulose genera (Lecanorales: Ramalinaceae and Pilocarpaceae). Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory 100: 617–623. [New: Aciculopsora Aptroot & Trest gen. nov., A. salmonea Aptroot & Trest sp. nov., Lueckingia Aptroot & Umana gen. nov., L. polyspora Aptroot & Umana sp. nov., and Septotrapelia Aptroot & Chaves gen. nov., S. glauca Aptroot & Chaves sp. nov., S. triseptata (Hepp) Aptroot comb. nov.] ——— & C. M. van Herk. 2007. Lecidea grisella sympatric with Lecidea fuscoatra, differing in its rimose instead of areolate thallus. Lichenologist 39(3): 293–296. [Authors conclude the two taxa are distinct, sympatric species.] Aras, S., D. Cansaran, A. O. Turk, I. Kandemir & M. Candan. 2007. Resolving genetic relationships in manna group of lichens from genus Aspicilia. African Journal of Biotechnology 6(9): 1154–1160. [Authors conclude, based on ITS rDNA data for 12 sequences of 6 species, that ‘‘ . . . Aspicilia genus is phylogenetically closer to the orders and families from Ostropomycetidae subclass rather than Lecanoromycetidae which support the placement of Hymeneliaceae within Ostropomycetidae.’’] Arup, U., S. Ekman, M. Grube, J.-E. Mattsson & M. Wedin. 2007. The sister group relation of Parmeliaceae (Lecanorales, Ascomycota). Mycologia 99(1): 42–49. [‘‘The results show that the closest relatives to Parmeliaceae are the two genera Protoparmelia and Gypsoplaca, which are crustose lichens. Parmeliaceae in our sense are a well supported group, including also the family segregates Alectoriaceae, Hypogymniaceae, Usneaceae and Anziaceae.’’] Arvidsson, L. 2007. A bibliography of David Galloway. In I. Karnefelt & A. Thell (eds.), Lichenological contributions in honour of David Galloway. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 95: 3– 28. [A brief reminiscence, bibliography of 319 publications, and a list of 16 taxa named for Galloway.] Aslan, A. & K. Yazici. 2006. Contribution to the lichen flora of Giresun Province of Turkey. Acta Botanica Hungarica 48(3– 4): 231–245. [Report of 147 spp. from 21 sites. Cladonia deformis is new to Turkey; 67 taxa new to Giresun province.] Asplund, J. & Y. Gauslaa. 2007. Content of secondary compounds depends on thallus size in the foliose lichen Lobaria pulmonaria. Lichenologist 39(3): 273–278. [Material from Norway showed a ‘‘ . . . positive correlation between thallus size an the total concentration of secondary compounds, as well as the total content per unit area for * The cumulative database for this series is available in searchable form on the World Wide Web at http://www.nhm.uio.no/botanisk/ bot-mus/lav/sok_rll.htm. I owe special thanks to Bill Buck for providing copies of papers by other authors, which were otherwise unavailable to me, and to the cooperating authors who send reprints or electronic versions of their works to me for inclusion in this series.

Effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on secondary compounds in the needles of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)

The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term effects of elevated CO2 concentration (doubling of ambient CO2 concentration) and temperature (2–6°C elevation) on the concentration and content of secondary compounds in the needles of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) saplings grown in closed-top environmental chambers. The chamber treatments included (1) ambient temperature and CO2, (2) ambient temperature and elevated CO2, (3) elevated temperature and ambient CO2, and (4) elevated temperature and elevated CO2. The needle sampling and analyses of monoterpenes, HPLC-phenolics and condensed tannins in current- and 1-year-old needles were made in two consecutive years. The results showed that the effects of elevation of CO2 and temperature were greatest on the monoterpene concentration in the needles while the concentration of HPLC-phenolics remained almost unaffected by the changed growing conditions. Most of the observed decrease in monoterpene concentration was caused by the CO2 enrichment while the effect of elevated temperature alone was not as significant. The accumulation of condensed tannins tended to increase due to the elevation of CO2 alone compensating the reduced carbon allocation to monoterpenes. Overall, the responses of the concentrations of secondary compounds to the elevation of CO2 and temperature are variable and depend strongly on the properties and characteristics of each compound as well as on the interrelation between the production of these compounds and the primary production of trees.

Change in the Biochemical Composition of Amaranth Leaves during Selection for Increased Amaranthine Content

The composition and content of secondary compounds produced by the shikimate pathway and the contents of protein and cellulose were determined in leaves of amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.) K-99 and the cultivar Valentina raised from it by family selection and enriched in the pigment amaranthine. It was found that intense biosynthesis of amaranthine, tyrosine, and phenylalanine resulted in a decrease in the contents of lignin, protein, and cellulose in leaves of Valentina by comparison with K-99 and in changes to the morphological traits: color deepening and a decrease in leaf density. It is concluded that amaranth biosynthesis is related to nitrogen metabolism and amaranthine is an intermediate involved in conversion of nitrogen compounds in the cell.

The Adaptive Significance of Geophagy for Japanese Macaques (Macaca fuscata) at Arashiyama, Japan

We gathered data on the amount, composition, and rate of ingestion of foods and soils by the provisioned Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) at Arashiyama, Japan. Behavioral observations spanned one year on 8 adult females, using focal animal sampling. We analyzed a subsample of their foods for nutritional and toxic secondary compound content. We also analyzed soils eaten by the macaques for several physical-chemical properties and tested their adsorption affinity to tannins and alkaloids. Geophagy occurred at a high rate of 2.97 g/indiv./day with an elevated frequency in the afternoon. About two-thirds of their foods (by fresh weight) were provisioned items, which are extremely rich in proteins and soluble carbohydrates. The soils that they ingested were generally poor in mineral elements, the bio-availability of which was low. The soils had a high adsorption capacity for plant alkaloids but were poorly absorptive for tannins. They were rich in clay minerals of proven buffering capacity. Geophagy at Arashiyama may improve the health of macaques via buffering gastric upset. We discuss the results from the viewpoint of several hypotheses on geophagy.

Isozyme Variation in a Tropical Pioneer Tree Species (Cecropia obtusifolia, Moraceae) with High Contents of Secondary Compounds1

ABSTRACTWe define 48 allozyme loci for a tropical pioneer tree species, Cecropia obtusifolia Bertol, which has high contents of secondary compounds. Our goals were to find the effects of extraction procedures on artifacts and variation in resolution of enzyme banding patterns; to explore the relationship among the variation of the loci sampled and the enzymes' molecular structure, metabolic function and substrate; to obtain estimates of the genetic variation in this species at Los Tuxtlas rain forest (México) and to explore the variation of allelic frequencies in six successive life‐history stages of the species.The resolution of the isozymes bands and the actual banding pattern varied with the type and age of tissue, the collection and storage procedures, the extraction buffer, and other loading and running procedural details. However, artifactual variation was eliminated with a new extraction buffer for species with high contents of secondary compounds.Of the 26 enzymes resolved for C. obtusifolia, we found that enzymes with a greater number of substrates and an oligomeric quaternary structure tended to be more variable than their counterparts, but the relationship was not statistically significant. The proportion of polymorphic systems varied significantly with the metabolic pathway and the function of the enzymes. Enzymes involved in starch synthesis are significantly more variable (p < 0.05) than all others, except those involved in amino acids metabolism and the proportion of polymorphic enzymes is also significantly associated with the hnction of the enzyme, the hydrolases and isomerases are significantly more variable than lyases and oxidoreductases enzymes.The percentage of polymorphic loci for C. obtusifolia was estimated at P = 27.1%. The effective number of alleles was estimated at ne = 1.3 and ne = 2.4 for all loci and only polymorphic ones respectively and the average heterozygosity (H) for all 48 loci was estimated at H = 0.05. Allele frequencies varied throughout the life‐cycle of the species, with significant differences for some alleles and loci among some life‐cycle stages. “Tree seeds” allele frequencies differ significantly (P < 0.05) from “rainy dispersed seeds” in 7 of 8 loci and from “soil seeds” in Six of eight loci. Allele frequencies of all three seed categories (“tree seeds”, “rainy dispersed seeds”, and “soil seeds”) differed strongly from established individuals (seedlings, juveniles and adults), while allele frequencies of established individuals are relatively similar to one another. Seedling allele frequencies at most loci were also significantly different from those found in seeds collected from trees, seed‐rain, and soil. Two alleles (at GOT‐2 and FE‐2) were only found in soil seeds and one allele (at LAP‐2) was only found in seedlings.

The Effect of Fertiliser and Shading on Plant Chemical Composition and Palatability to Orkney Voles, Microtus arvalis orcadensis

This study investigated the effect of environmental factors on plant allocation to secondary compounds, and whether differences in these allocations between individual plants explained the selection behaviour of mammalian herbivores. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) seedlings and heather (Calluna vulgaris) plants were subjected to fertiliser and shading treatments which altered their nutrient and secondary compound content. The response of Orkney voles (Microtus arvalis orcadensis) to these treatments was tested in laboratory feeding trials. Foliage from the spruce seedlings which had received both shading and fertiliser were the most palatable to voles. This preference correlated with the effects of the treatments on seedling nitrogen and phenolic levels, but not with monoterpene content. Heather which had been fertilised was also the most preferred, but in this case the chemical basis for palatability was nitrogen and fibre content as the phenolic content of the plants was not altered by the treatments. This study shows that predictions of the carbon/nutrient balance hypothesis for allocation to plant defences are not applicable to all groups of secondary compounds, or to all plant species, and that voles are capable of using a variety of chemical cues to detect environmentally induced differences in the nutrient quality of individual plants within a species

Consumption of cyanogenic bamboo by a newly discovered species of bamboo lemur.

Three species of bamboo-eating lemurs were found to be sympatric in the southeastern rain forests of Madagascar. Sympatric species generally differ in habitat utilization or diet, but these three closely related bamboo lemurs lived in the same habitat and all ate bamboo. Behavioral observation revealed that they did select different parts of the bamboo, and chemical analyses confirmed that there was a difference in the secondary compound content present in those selections. The growing tips of Cephalostachyum ef uiguieri selected by the golden bamboo lemur (Hapalemuraureus) contained 15 mg of cyanide per 100 g fresh weight bamboo while the leaves of C. perrieri selected by the gentle bamboo lemur (H. griseus)and the mature culms of C. cf uiguieri selected by the greater bamboolemur (H. simus) did not contain cyanide. Since each individual golden bamboo lemur ate about 500 g of bamboo per day, they daily ingestedabout 12 times the lethal dose of cyanide. The mechanism by which this small primate avoids the acute and chronic symptoms of cyanide poisioning is unknown.

The impact of plant secondary compounds on primate feeding behavior

Primates, Secondary compounds, Feeding behavior, Nutrients, ABSTRACT The recent literature on plant secondary compounds and their influence on primate feeding behavior is reviewed. Many studies of nonhuman primates document the extreme selectivity that primates, particularly herbivo- rous species, demonstrate in their food choice. Until quite recently investigators interpreted this to mean that herbivorous primates were not food limited. This view has been challenged in the past 10 years by researchers concentrating on the primate-plant interaction. Chemical analyses have demonstrated that plant parts are of varying quality due to differences in nutrient and secondary compound content. The assumption that all leaves (or fruits, flowers, and insects) are po- tential foods of equal value to the primates eating them is refuted. The observed selectivity and preferences of primates for specific plant or insect species and parts are now viewed as strategies for dealing with the nutrient and secondary compound content variation in these foods. The field of plant-herbivore interaction is a rapidly expanding one that includes the phytochemical relationship between plants and herbivores. It has long been acknowl- edged that plants and insects profoundly influenced each others' evolutionary courses, but only recently have the biological and ecological roles of plant-produced secondary compounds been recognized. Stahl (1888) was the first to suggest that plants use chemical defenses in addition to the more familiar morphological and mechanical means of protecting themselves. Despite this early observation, plant produced chemicals were considered nothing more than waste products of plant metabolism until Fraenkel (1959) again suggested a defensive function for these compounds. Since then impressive evidence, which dem- onstrates that plants do use secondary compounds for defensive purposes, has accu- mulated (Ehrlich and Raven, 1965; Feeny, 1968; Janzen, 1969; Fthoades and Cates, 1976; Rosenthal and Janzen, 1979; and included references). Mothes (1976) went so far to suggest that secondary substances may be primarily defensive in nature and are neither essential nor of any physiological importance to the plants that produce them. He stated that the loss of these chemicals does not reduce the plant's viability.