Secondary Burials Research Articles

Hunter-gatherer's mortuary practices in artificial mounds of the lower Paraná River basin (Argentina): An approach through funerary taphonomy

The Late Holocene complex hunter-gatherers of the Lower Paraná River Basin (Argentina) settled on fluvial banks of the riparian landscape, and to a much lesser extent, on artificially elevated structures. Although both present a complex variability of burials, those of the artificial mounds are barely known. This work aims to explore the mortuary practices of the oldest artificially elevated sites in the region, Escuela 31 and Cerro Mayor (1800–1500 years BP), through a funerary taphonomic approach. We analyze the burials of 11 adult and subadult individuals of both sexes, focusing on the process of decomposition and skeletonization as consequences of mortuary treatment. The patterns of disarticulation, the presence of insect and animal damage, and cut marks are consistent with the temporal exposure of corpses and the possible use of wraps. For some cases, the spatial arrangement of the remains presented a novel type of secondary burials. The disposal of the dead comprises the ultimate stage of successive events and preparations of the corpse, which manifest complex interactions between the living and the dead. This work contributes to the knowledge about the mortuary program of South American hunter-gatherers in general and societies that built artificial mounds in the southernmost wetlands of South America. It also highlights the importance of funerary taphonomy to understand the variability of mortuary treatments.

Mormintele sarmatice de la Prăjeni (județul Botoșani) / The Sarmatian graves from Prăjeni (Botoșani County)

Between 1985 and 1988, 14 Sarmatian graves were excavated at Prăjeni (Botoșani County), in the locations known as Alimândra, Nelipești, Țarnă and Lutărie 2. These graves have not been systematically published but information about them may be found in the literature published so far. The authors intend, by this contribution, to publish the data concerning the Sarmatian finds of Prăjeni. Out of the 14 graves uncovered there, which could be considered as belonging to the Sarmatians, 13 are secondary burials in tumuli – five in Tumulus III from Prăjeni – Alimândra, two in Tumulus IV of the same location, one in the mound of Nelipești and five in the tumulus from Prăjeni – Țarnă. Considering the five Sarmatian graves from Prăjeni – Țarnă as secondary burials in older tumuli might, at first sight, arise some doubts. The authors consider that the main criterium was the intention of those who buried the dead to choose a higher ground, as they were not aware that, during the late first century AD, what it looked like a higher ground, was, in fact, soil that had slid from the southern slope of a Bronze Age tumulus. Most of the 13 graves in discussion are oriented along the N– S axis, with variations, with only two exceptions (WSW– ENE and S– N). Dorsal decubitus, with arms and legs stretched was recorded for six deceased. Reinhumation seems to be attested in Grave 4 of Tumulus III from Alimândra, where the long bones and the ribs have been arranged somehow radially around the skull and the pelvis. Grave goods were deposited in all the 13 Sarmatian secondary graves in older tumuli from Prăjeni. Except for Grave 3 in Tumulus IV from Alimândra, and possibly Grave 4 in Tumulus III of the same location (where only a pottery fragment was found), all the other 11 graves contained pottery vessels, either one (nine cases), or two (two cases). These vessels are, mainly, hand-made. The wheel-made pottery is less frequently found (five cases). Besides pottery, other categories of grave goods, such as adornments (beads, earrings, pendants, bracelet, and bells), dress items (brooches), toilet implements (mirrors), household tools (spindle whorls), and weapons were deposited in the Sarmatian graves of Prăjeni, too. The great number of items that the Sarmatians living in the area took over from the Dacians (the hand-made mug from Prăjeni – Țarnă Grave 2, the small mug from Grave 7 at the same location, the profiled brooches from Prăjeni – Alimândra Tumulus IV Grave 3 and Țarnă Grave 2, the pendants made of profiled bars from Alimândra Tumulus III Grave 3 and Țarnă Grave 9, maybe also the bucket-shaped pendants found in this last grave) should also be mentioned. The items of Dacian origin found in the graves of Prăjeni indicate the fact that some of the burials took place after the Sarmatians established relationships with the Dacians in the area, indicating a certain time span, difficult to estimate, elapsed between the precise moment of their arrival in this territory and the burials. Generally speaking, the secondary graves of the tumuli from Prăjeni can be dated between the second half of the first century AD and the first half of the next century. The five graves in the tumuli from Prăjeni – Țarnă may be of a later date than the graves in the tumuli from Alimândra and Nelipești, if we take into account the presence in three burials of the grave goods of Dacian origin. The grave from Prăjeni – Lutărie 2 differs from the previously analysed graves, as concerns the layout (flat grave), the location (grave in a settlement) as well as the grave goods. The little girl, less than seven years old was buried only with adornments : a necklace of beads and pendants, earrings and a bracelet whose analogies suggest a chronological framing in the third century AD.

Study on the burial practice of tomb M13 of the Yangshao culture at Baligang site in Dengzhou City

Abstract The multidisciplinary research on the Yangshao period (4200–2900 BCE) tomb M13, a joint secondary burial at the Baligang site of the Yangshao culture in Dengzhou City, Henan Province showed that there were in total 126 individuals buried in this grave. Their death crossed at least 200 years; among them, at least five individuals were from three maternal lineages, and the descent system of this group was patrilineal. There were also 138 pig mandibles buried in M13, which had been dated and shows that they were collected across over 400 years. Based on the statistics the death population at Baligang site, it is estimated that the human bones found from M13 went through a secondary burial process during which they were probably regarded as “ceremonial objects.” The joint secondary burials as M13 is seen as a result of some reburying ceremonies held at the Baligang site.

Marking graves and intruding on the dead: An archaeothanatological analysis to unveil posthumous experiences of death and remembrance at the site of Checua, Colombia (7580-5052 cal BP)

The archaeological site of Checua is located at the north end of the Sabana de Bogotá, Northern South America. New archaeological research at the site has revealed significant evidence of well-preserved hunters and gatherers’ funerary contexts which date back to 7580-5052 BP (cal 2σ). Former studies reported 33 human interments, and a recent excavation at the site revealed 24 additional individuals distributed in 18 ritual burials. In this occasion, a taphonomy-focused archaeothanatological protocol was implemented to determine the nature of the burials and to inquire into post-mortem manipulations of the bodies. This analysis revealed unknown funerary practices among hunters and gatherers in the region, such as occasional wrappings of the corpses before their disposal, unconventional rearrangements of the bodies in secondary burials, as well as intentional and well-planned post-depositional manipulations in primary inhumations. In this paper we select a sample of 10 individuals to illustrate the results of this analysis, and we highlight the relevance of archaeothanatology to obtain high-resolution data of mortuary practices. Here we focus on the process of ritualization by exploring the ways in which the living dealt with the dead by means of diverse treatments of human bodies and posthumous arrangements of graves. We argue that the study of these funerary practices opens up a wider range of possibilities to discuss how the living faced the experience of remembrance as they commemorated death.

Los Canes Mesolithic burials: archaeothanatology

Los Canes cave (Asturias, Northern Spain) is an outstanding site with traces of human occupation from the Solutrean to the Bronze Age. It consists of a very narrow cavity with three Late Mesolithic funerary structures, dating to the sixth millennium cal BC. The human remains found in these graves were studied in this paper from an archaeothanatological perspective. We considered the positions of the bodies and the causes of the displacement of several bones from their anatomical connections. This study discusses whether these inhumations correspond to primary or secondary burials. We conclude that they were primary graves, with traces of reuse in some cases. The dispersion of several bones may be explained by taphonomic factors and intensive utilization of the cave as a funerary space. Los Canes burials confirm the diversity found across the European Mesolithic funerary world and enhance our knowledge of the last hunter-gatherers in the Iberian Peninsula.

The Early Eneolithic burial ground at Ekaterinovsky Cape in the forest-steppe Volga region

The Ekaterinovsky Cape burial ground is located on the territory of the Samara region of Russia on the left bank of the River Volga. The excavation of the burial ground was carried out in 2013–2018. During this time we studied 100 graves, including sacrificial sites with ceramics of collar type and sacrificial complexes. Most of the skeletons were in an extended position on their backs. There are some skeletons on their backs with legs bent at the knees, secondary burials and separate burials of skulls. Ochre was used. The inventory included beads made from shells, stone products, animal teeth, bones and horns. There we distinguished graves with stone sceptres and zoomorphic rods made from the horn. The burial ground belongs to the Samara culture and dates from the second half of the 6th millennium BC.

The Early Eneolithic burial ground at Ekaterinovsky Cape in the forest-steppe Volga region

The Ekaterinovsky Cape burial ground is located on the territory of the Samara region of Russia on the left bank of the River Volga. The excavation of the burial ground was carried out in 2013–2018. During this time we studied 100 graves, including sacrificial sites with ceramics of collar type and sacrificial complexes. Most of the skeletons were in an extended position on their backs. There are some skeletons on their backs with legs bent at the knees, secondary burials and separate burials of skulls. Ochre was used. The inventory included beads made from shells, stone products, animal teeth, bones and horns. There we distinguished graves with stone sceptres and zoomorphic rods made from the horn. The burial ground belongs to the Samara culture and dates from the second half of the 6th millennium BC.

The bioarchaeology of mid-Holocene pastoralist cemeteries west of Lake Turkana, Kenya

Early herders in eastern Africa built elaborate megalithic cemeteries ~ 5000 BP overlooking what is now Lake Turkana in northwestern Kenya. At least six ‘pillar sites’ were constructed during a time of rapid change: cattle, sheep, and goats were introduced to the basin as the lake was shrinking at the end of the African Humid Period. Cultural changes at this time include new lithic and ceramic technologies and the earliest monumentality in eastern Africa. Isolated human remains previously excavated from pillar sites east of Lake Turkana seemed to indicate that pillar site platforms were ossuaries for secondary burials. Recent bioarchaeological excavations at four pillar sites west of the lake have now yielded ≥49 individuals, most from primary and some from secondary interments, challenging earlier interpretations. Here we describe the mortuary cavities, and burial contexts, and included items such as adornments from Lothagam North, Lothagam West, Manemanya, and Kalokol pillar sites. In doing so, we reassess previous hypotheses regarding pillar site construction, use, and inter-site variability. We also present the first osteological analyses of skeletons buried at these sites. Although the human remains are fragmentary, they are nevertheless informative about the sex, age, and body size of the deceased and give evidence for health and disease processes. Periosteal moulds of long bone midshafts (n = 34 elements) suggest patterns of terrestrial mobility. Pillar site deposits provide important new insights into early herder lifeways in eastern Africa and the impact of the transition to pastoralism on past human populations.

The space of man's death. A modern age secondary burial case in northern Italy.

Much of the recent archaeological and anthropological research on Italian modern age secondary burials has focused primarily on source analysis and the funerary context descriptions. To enable a clearer understanding of these atypical burials we need more archaeological data. To comprehend the mortuary practices it is necessary to investigate the surviving funeral monuments, burials and human remains. In fact, through the correct analysis of cultural material and human remains, it is possible to highlight the taphonomic changes of the corpse experiences during the entire ritual process. This will allow us to reconstruct the modality of body treatment in the funeral ritual. Now, we know partially the diffusion of the secondary burial ritual in southern Italy, but in northern Italy, it is lesser known. In this paper, we report the results of the archaeological and anthropological investigations conducted inside the Crypt of the Franciscan Monastery of Azzio (Varese, northern Italy). In the hypogeal funerary chamber, the corpses were temporarily deposed in seat-niches. This type of burial recalls the sitting colatois (masonry seat with a hole in the center), known in Naples as "cantarelle" and largely present in southern Italy. Throughout archaeological, anthropological and historical investigations, we tried to reconstruct the ritual adopted by the Friars and to better understand the ties with other northern and southern Italian testimonies. After our investigations, we received several notices of other similar funerary monuments in northern Italy that would be worth investigating.

Expediting Reincarnation in the Fifth Millennium BCE: Interpreting the Chalcolithic Ossuaries of the Southern Levant

SummaryWe examine and reinterpret the phenomenon of containers used for the secondary burial of human remains – ossuaries – in the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant, c.4500–3700 BCE. Ossuary form and decoration, both plastic and painted, is evocative and symbol‐laden. Since their first discovery in the 1930s, several hypotheses have sought to explain ossuary iconography, but none provides an integrated, holistic interpretation. Chalcolithic iconography, mortuary contexts, and archetypal mythologies suggest that ossuaries, mainly of clay, but also of stone, served as vehicles of reincarnation.

Bacterial bioerosion in human and animal bones from subtropical environments (Northern Pampa/Middle Paraná River Basin, República Argentina)

Microbial bioerosion is a major diagenetic factor determining the long-term survival of archaeological bones as well as the quantity and quality of the biological information retrievable from them. In spite of this, information about bioerosion is still scarce from a worldwide perspective, with most of the data coming from the European continent. In this connection, the primary aim of this paper is to present the first results of an ongoing study oriented at identifying patterns of bacterial bioerosion in human and animal bone samples recovered at different Late Holocene archaeological sites from the subtropical environments of the Middle Paraná River Basin and the Northern Pampa Plain, República Argentina. These results differ in some respects from those obtained in other regions and climates, particularly the temperate belt of Europe, but are consistent with data from a nearer zone, the southern Pampas of East-Central Argentina. The main differences with most of the European samples investigated so far lie in the higher intensity of the bacterial attack on bones, which is reflected in the placement of the first and second frequency distribution modes at lower values of the Oxford Histological Index (0 and 3, respectively), an absence of cases with excellent histological preservation (i.e. OHI = 5) and, finally, a higher frequency and intensity of bioerosion in disarticulated animal bones and in those of humans interred as secondary burials. The causes of the observed differences are still not well understood, being probable that they are linked to higher levels of bacterial activity in the soils of this subtropical region of southern South America.

Early Iron Age Pyramidal Kurgans in Western Siberia

Ditches encircling the Early Iron Age Sargatka kurgans in the Western Siberian forest-steppe are described. Most of them are nonagonal, decagonal, and dodecagonal, but hexagonal, heptagonal, octogonal and those with 14 angles occur as well. Kurgan shape does not correlate with size, platform diameter, or number of burials. The analysis of data regarding the micro-relief of the kurgan surface and of sources relevant to early nomadic religion enables us to interpret various types of ditches. Those of the hexaand heptagonal type encircled a wooden and earthen pyramid, presumably symbolizing the World Mountain. Those with 9, 12, and 14 angles result from a proportionally larger size of elite kurgans. Indeed, inside such kurgans, hexa- and heptagonal wooden platforms are found. Unclosed ditches likely indicate unfi nished kurgans, and those with 11 and 13 angles result from a distortion of the initial layout by secondary burials. Ditches are associated only with male burials and were apparently meant to protect the dead against evil forces and against the possible intrusion of potentially hostile ancestors, whose cult was reconstructed on the basis of offerings in elite burials. The architecture of the Sargatka kurgans evidences remnants of Indo-European myths transformed by inter-ethnic contacts and cultural innovations on the periphery of the Scytho-Siberian world.

Mycenaean Secondary Burial Revisited: Legacy Data, Taphonomy, and the Process of Burial in Achaia, Greece

Archaeologists working in various contexts around the world frequently label human remains found in a commingled, fragmented state as “secondary burials” without consideration of the processes by which they form. This unevaluated categorization can lead to inaccurate generalizations and poorly theorized interpretations. Here, I evaluate burial deposits labeled “secondary burials” in a sample of Mycenaean tombs by applying a multifaceted bioarchaeological methodology to reconstruct the actions within the diverse mortuary practices of this period. I use previously excavated human remains (legacy data) and their archaeological context to test hypotheses regarding Mycenaean mortuary practices. Based on an analysis of bone completeness, fragment length, cut marks, element survival percentages, intact skeletal articulations, and tomb context, it is evident that body manipulation in Mycenaean burials was common but varied. In some tombs, disarticulated skeletal material was found next to a primary burial and exhibited percentages of element survival similar to primary deposits. In other tombs, deposits of human remains were found without nearby primary burials. Secondary burial consisting of bone selection and reburial without an associated primary burial was found in only one tomb. Therefore, secondary burial involving deliberate collection and reburial of specific human remains was a rare practice in Mycenaean Achaia. This study shows the value of a multifaceted bioarchaeological approach to a sample of legacy data and reminds archaeologists to be wary of overarching terminology that can obscure complex multistage mortuary processes. Τα ανθρώπινα σκελετικά υπολείμματα που βρίσκονται συχνά αποσπασματικά και αναμεμειγμένα σε τάφους,πολύ συχνά περιγράφονται ως «δευτερογενείς ταφές». Η χρήση του περιγραφικού και γενικόλογου αυτού όρου περιορίζει τις δυνατότητες ερμηνείας και θεωρητικής προσέγγισης καθώς δεν διερευνά τις πρακτικές που οδηγούν στη θραύση και ανάμειξη ή διασπορά των ανθρώπινων οστών. Στο άρθρο αυτό γίνεται μία προσπάθεια να διερευνηθεί με την χρήση σύνθετων βιοαρχαιολογικών μεθόδων ένας αριθμός «δευτερογενών ταφών» (ή «ανακομιδών») που έχουν βρεθεί σε μυκηναϊκούς τάφους. Αν και οι τάφοι αυτοί αποκαλύφτηκαν πριν κάποιες δεκαετίες κατά τη διάρκεια σωστικών ανασκαφών, είμαστε σε θέση να ανασυστήσουμε τις ταφικές πρακτικές με βάση τα ανασκαφικά δεδομένα και τα συνευρισκόμενα στοιχεία. Με βάση τον βαθμό πληρότητας και το μήκος των θραυσμένων οστών, την παρουσία ή απουσία ιχνών κοπής, την ποσοστιαία παρουσία διαφορετικών τμημάτων του σκελετού, την ύπαρξη αρθρωμένων οστών και άλλα αρχαιολογικά στοιχεία, η ανάλυση μας επιτρέπει να καταλήξουμε στο συμπέρασμα ότι ο διαμελισμός των σκελετοποιημένων ανθρώπινων λειψάνων αποτελεί διαδεδομένο έθιμο στη μυκηναϊκή εποχή, το οποίο όμως συναντάται σε διάφορες παραλλαγές. Σε ορισμένους τάφους ανευρίσκονται δευτερογενείς ταφές δίπλα σε πρωτογενείς παρουσιάζοντας παρόμοια ποσοστιαία παρουσία τμημάτων του σκελετού. Σε άλλες περιπτώσεις όμως τάφοι περιέχουν μόνον δευτερογενείς ταφές. Στο δείγμα που εξετάζεται στην παρούσα μελέτη, μόνον σε μία περίπτωση βρέθηκε σαφής δευτερογενής ταφή, δηλαδή ταφή που αποτελείται μόνον από επιλεγμένα τμήματα του σκελετού και που μετακινήθηκε από την αρχική της θέση. Μπορούμε λοιπόν να καταλήξουμε ότι οι πραγματικές δευτερογενείς ταφές είναι σπάνιες στη μυκηναϊκή Αχαϊα. Η μελέτη αυτή αποδεικνύει ότι η λεπτομερής βιοαρχαιολογική ανάλυση ανθρώπινου σκελετικού υλικού, ακόμη και όταν αυτό προέρχεται από παλαιότερες ανασκαφές, μας επιτρέπει να ανασυστήσουμε την πολυμορφία των μυκηναϊκών ταφικών πρακτικών, και δείχνει την ανεπάρκεια του γενικού και περιγραφικού όρου «δευτερογενής ταφή» που ακόμη χρησιμοποιείται ευρύτατα.

Secondary Burial Ground in the Pyramid Complex of King Djedkare: A Preliminary Report on Burials with Grave Goods

The exploration of the pyramid complex of King Djedkare at south Saqqara in 2018 revealed a large number of secondary burials. These burials were found between the north part of the king’s funerary precinct and in the south part of his queen’s precinct in an area which had not been previously excavated. This brief preliminary study presents the archaeological frame together with the results of the osteological examination of a small group of burials which contained grave goods. This study shows that at this burial ground, grave goods were associated mostly with immature individuals, and in a smaller number of cases with adult women, while no adult male burial with grave goods was documented in this group.

Grafheuvels bij Arnhem. Opgravingen op het landgoed Warnsborn 1947-’48

Barrows near Arnhem; excavations on the Warnsborn estate, 1947-’48.In 1947 and 1948 six barrows were excavated on the Warnsborn estate, to the west of Arnhem. Although seemingly initiated for purely scientific purposes, no report was ever published, only some very short notes. This paper gives an account of the organization, the procedures followed and a critical (re)interpretation of the findings, on the basis of the field drawings and the field journal. The conclusion differs in many respects from the excavators’ original interpretations. It may be viewed as a cautionary tale for those relying on records of earlier investigations of this kind. The research was initiated and supervised by prof. Van Giffen, but in fact executed rather independently by his experienced field technician and draughtsman, assisted by two students, who some years later were to be appointed university professors and as such shaped post-war archaeology in the Netherlands. It was the period in which the State Service (ROB, now RCE) was founded, which, headed by Van Giffen, ultimately must have been the responsible institution. The barrows to be excavated were an arbitrary selection from the numerous mounds in the shallow valleys of the Heelsum and Wolfheze brooks: four dating to the Bronze Age, along the valley floor, and two from the Beaker period, slightly apart. All six appear to be part of a long row, as found in many regions across the country, comprising19 barrows. One of the Beaker burials (IV) had a characteristic early Single Grave inventory and was surrounded by a narrow palisaded ditch. The reliability of the observation of a corpse silhouette must however be doubted. The other Beaker barrow (V) was dated only on the basis of its appearance and the fossil soil conditions. It only shows some features that are hard to interpret. The group of four Bronze Age burials offers us a glimpse of the changing burial customs among a small local community. They are characterized by the absence of cremations and the exclusive practice of inhumation in all 27 burials documented. All recorded bodies were supine, with only one exception, a slightly flexed burial. None of these were equipped with any imperishable grave goods. It is remarkable that this small community in the interaction zone of the southern and northern burial traditions had exclusively followed the northern practice of extended inhumation. In the absence of radiocarbon dates and artifacts, dating had to be based purely on circumstantial evidence; with Middle Bronze Age A as the result, with a possible extension into MBA-B, i.e. 1800-1400 cal BC. Two of the Bronze Age barrows (I and II) are relatively small, simple and one-phased, with a single, supine central inhumation, one of these accompanied by a subsequent child burial. The two others (III and the large, so-called ‘Meelworstenberg’) had started similarly, but had grown to larger dimensions, up to 15 and 18 m in diameter, by the addition of new construction phases linked with new central graves. The larger one incorporated a small and low sand dune already present. The barrows became more complex and significantly different also by the introduction of secondary burials, in the form of 6 and 15 shaft graves respectively, orientated tangentially all along the barrows’ margins, and the raising of surrounding post circles. In one case this circle was only partially preserved and documented, but it was of quite impressive dimensions around the larger barrow, and seemingly not connected with a central burial, but with the secondary burials only. In both cases we observe a fundamental shift from a function as an exclusive tomb for selected individuals from the local community, as customary in earlier times, to a communal cemetery for numerous members of the community. This change in burial custom may serve as an argument for the contemporaneity of the last phase of both barrows, the simple barrows representing the earlier stage only.

The Muknal cave near Tulum, Mexico: An early-Holocene funeral site on the Yucatán peninsula

Here, we report on an incomplete human skeleton, soot patches related to anthropogenic fireplaces, and cut marks on the mandible of an extinct peccary, from the submerged Muknal cave southwest of Tulum on the Mexican Yucatán peninsula. The human individual, here named ‘Muknal Grandfather’, was identified as a male based on cranial parameters. The age at the time of death was estimated to be between 40 and 45 years. We propose that the human bones have been brought to the cave during the latest Pleistocene or early Holocene, but not later than 8600 14C yr BP (ca. 9600 cal BP), as a secondary burial of a partial skeleton. The peccary mandible was placed close to the burial site, possibly as part of the same ritual. The Muknal cave therefore served as a place for funeral rituals.

Dental Paleopathology of the Ray Site (12W6), Indiana

The Ray site (1 2W6), in southern Indiana, contains several secondary burials, two of which havebeen dated to the Mississippian period (A.D. 1050-A.D. 1450). Three burial styles were noted: (1) burials linedwith stone slabs and containing Mississippian pottery, (2) burials lined with stone slabs without Mississippianpottery, and (3) burials not lined with stone slabs and without Mississippian pottery. The purpose of this studywas to determine the biological homogeneity of this poorly preserved skeletal assemblage via an analysis of dentalpathological conditions, the frequency and expression of which are known to associate with distinct dietary and/orsettlement patterns. Conditions studied include the frequency of hypoplastic defects and carious lesions, the typeof hypoplastic defects, the earliest age of onset of hypoplastic defects, and the location of carious lesions. A totalof 437 teeth were scored for hypoplastic defects and 433 were scored for carious lesions. No significant differencein dental pathologies was found between burial styles. Therefore, despite considerable burial heterogeneity,dental pathological conditions suggest that individuals from all burials consumed an equally cariogenic diet andunderwent similar childhood stresses. It is most likely that all burials are from the same temporal and social groupand that the different burial styles represent different stages in the processing of the remains of individuals from ahigh social status Mississippian mortuary.

Diachronic variation in secondary burial practices in Bronze and Iron Age Moravia

The transition from inhumation to cremation is a well-documented phenomenon in Bronze Age Central Europe. However, almost nothing is known about similar transitions taking place in other mortuary practices, such as secondary burials. This study brings new insights into diachronic trends in secondary burials during the Central European Bronze and Iron Age. Diachronic trends in secondary burials are defined here by different kinds of excarnation. The type of excarnation was observed in 23 secondary burials dating to the Early Bronze Age and the turn of the Late Bronze to Early Iron Age at five sites in Moravia (Czech Republic). Osteological and taphonomic assessment of unburned human bones recovered from settlement contexts indicates a changing pattern of secondary burial practice over time. Early Bronze Age human remains bear traces of both passive excarnation by natural agents, such as exposure to carnivores, and excarnation by primary burial. By the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age secondary burials show evidence of excarnation with tools. This modification of secondary burial practices, may be connected with a contemporaneous change of primary burial practices from inhumation to cremation.

Chińskie zwyczaje pogrzebowe: powtórny pochówek

The article is devoted to the Chinese death ritual of a secondary burial in its traditional form, known from ancient written sources. It depicts its origin and the most important practices associated with it. The article is based on the BA thesis “Funerary customs in China and Taiwan: secondary burial”, written by the author under the supervision of dr. Marcin Jacobi in the Department of Chinese Language at Warsaw University in 2013.

INVESTIGATION OF THE EARLY IRON AGE MOUNDS IN THE BASIN OF THE ROS RIVER

The paper is devoted to the publication of materials of two early Iron Age burial mounds in Porossya on the territory of the Dnieper Right Bank Forest-Steppe. Monuments were located near the Lysa Gora natural boundary and the village Novoselytsya near Tarascha. Small barrows with a height about 0.5—0.65 m and a diameter near 10—14 m contained burials in rectangular graves with a small entrances. Above on them the special ground areas were constructed, then they were covered with a mound. The burial ceremony could be either incomplete cremation on the site of the mound, or the secondary burial of burned bones. Complexes can be dated by the pre-Scythian time or the beginning of the early Scythian period, and belong to the local settled population.