Second Language Acquisition Research Research Articles

Introduction: Identity, Transdisciplinarity, and the Good Language Teacher

What constitutes a “good teacher” and “good teaching” has come under much scrutiny in an age of globalization, transnationalism, and increased demands for accountability. It is against this evolving landscape and the pathbreaking work of the Douglas Fir Group (DFG, 2016) that this special issue engages the following two broad questions: (a) In what ways is language teaching “identity work”? and (b) To what extent does a transdisciplinary approach to language learning and teaching offer insight into language teacher identity? We begin this Introduction with a discussion on identity research in second language acquisition and applied linguistics, and then address innovations in language teacher identity research, exploring how this work has been advanced methodologically through narratives, discourse analysis, and an ethical consideration of research practices. We then consider how the transdisciplinary framework of the DFG, and its focus on macro, meso, and micro dimensions of language learning at the ideological, institutional, and classroom levels, respectively, might contribute to our understanding of language teacher identity. In the final section, we argue that the host of complementary theories adopted by the six contributors supports the view that a transdisciplinary approach to language teacher identity is both productive and desirable. Further, the contributors advance the language teacher identity research agenda by taking into consideration (a) how teacher identity intersects with the multilingual (Higgins and Ponte) and translingual (Zheng) realities of contemporary classrooms, (b) the investment of teachers in developing the semiotic repertoires of learners (Stranger–Johannessen and Norton) and a socially inclusive learning environment (Barkhuizen), and (c) the emotions (Wolff and De Costa) and ethical practices (Miller, Morgan, and Medina) of teachers. Central to all articles in this special issue is the need to recognize the rich linguistic and personal histories that language teachers bring into the classroom in order to promote effective language learning.

The development of morphological complexity: A cross-linguistic study of L2 French and English

Studies in second language acquisition (SLA) increasingly rely on measures of linguistic complexity to assess second language (L2) proficiency and development. While an important number of studies have risen to the call of studying a broader range of complexity related constructs (Bulté and Housen, 2012; Norris and Ortega, 2009), few have examined morphological complexity, instead focusing on syntax and lexis. The use of morphology measures is especially warranted in light of complexity trade-offs believed to occur both in language development – when growth in one linguistic domain (e.g. syntax) is temporarily prioritized over growth in another (e.g. morphology) – as well as crosslinguistically, in the form of balancing effects between different domains of the linguistic system. From both a cross-linguistic and developmental perspective, then, the current emphasis in SLA research on measures of syntactic complexity does not comprehensively gauge overall (grammatical) complexity in learner data. This study focuses on the development of morphological complexity using three previously proposed measures based on the notion of morphological diversity, with special attention to the verbal inflectional system (Horst and Collins, 2006; Malvern et al., 2004; Pallotti, 2015). Not only does the verbal system pose significant challenges to language learners, it is also the locus of important differences between inflectionally richer languages, like French, and inflectionally poorer languages, like English. The study investigates cross-linguistic differences in the development of morphological complexity and the effectiveness of the three morphological complexity measures as indicators of proficiency. The analyses were carried out on a multilingual corpus of 100 L2 French and 100 L2 English oral narratives, representing four different proficiency levels in both languages. Results indicate a more continuous increase of morphological complexity in L2 French than in L2 English and underline the importance of morphology as an essential component of a multidimensional view of linguistic complexity in SLA.

TEFL teachers’ and non-TEFL teachers’ perceptions on the relationship between SLA research and language pedagogy

Abstract This study explores TEFL teachers’ and non-TEFL teachers’ perceptions about the relationship between second language acquisition (SLA) research and language pedagogy with regard to familiarity, involvement, accessibility, consultation, relevance, and usefulness of SLA research in L2 pedagogy. To this end, 83 teachers, 40 TEFL teachers and 43 non-TEFL teachers, participated in this study. They filled out a questionnaire addressing their perceptions about SLA research and language pedagogy. The results revealed that the majority of TEFL teachers involved in doing research, at least as their educational term projects, while mostly no contribution was reported by non-TEFL teachers. In addition, TEFL teachers insisted that L2 teachers need to be involved in SLA research to be successful in their teaching career, while non-TEFL teachers were of the opposite opinion. Moreover, it was revealed that TEFL teachers considered the knowledge gained from research studies relevant and useful to their classroom actions, whereas non-TEFL teachers saw their experience more important for managing their classroom actions. Although both groups had contradictory perceptions of the relationship between SLA research and language pedagogy, they showed some common points in this regard. That is, both groups reported on their difficulty in having access to the research materials; they also expressed their willingness to do research.

A Measure of Proficiency or Short‐Term Memory? Validation of an Elicited Imitation Test for SLA Research

Elicited imitation requires listeners to listen and repeat sentences as accurately as possible. In second language acquisition (SLA) research it has been used for a variety of purposes. Recently, versions of the same elicited imitation test (EIT) have been created in 6 languages with the purpose of measuring second language proficiency (Ortega et al., ; Tracy–Ventura et al., 2014; Wu & Ortega, ). The validity of these EITs has been tested, and results are promising. However, questions remain regarding the extent to which EIT performance is mediated by learners’ memory span. The current study validates a new Korean EIT following the Ortega et al. () design and, as part of that, investigates the potential role of phonological short‐term memory in test performance. Korean as a second language learners (N = 66) took the following tests over 2 days: the Korean EIT, the listening section of the standardized Test of Proficiency in Korean (TOPIK), a speaking test, and a forward digit span test in their first language. Results indicated significant positive correlations between EIT scores and the various proficiency measures, but a weak and nonsignificant correlation between the EIT and forward digit span scores. Together, these results provide support for this EIT as a valid and reliable proficiency measure for use in SLA research.

Variability in L2 Acquisition: Investigating the Role of Formal Features

Following the development of the minimalist program in the 1990’s, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) researchers’ interest shifted from a focus on functional categories to a focus on formal features which, thereafter, came to be viewed as the ‘center of learnability theory’. Subsequently, Chomsky’s distinction of feature selection and feature assembly, divided SLA researchers among those who take L2 impairment to result from a failure in the selection of parametrized features, and those who believe that the problem is caused by a failure in feature assembly. The present study examines the validity of the feature (re)-assembly account by providing arguments from the second language acquisition of English by speakers of two varieties of Arabic. In particular, the findings from the comparison of the written samples of two groups of students are argued to support the claim that L2 impairment can be explained by a failure to (re)-assemble features. However, certain problems in L2 acquisition are left unaccounted for, suggesting that more is involved in SLA than just feature selection and feature assembly.

Morphological complexity in written L2 texts

Morphological complexity (MC) is a relatively new construct in second language acquisition (SLA). After critically discussing existing approaches to calculating MC in first- and second-language acquisition research, this article presents a new operationalization of the construct, the Morphological Complexity Index (MCI). The MCI is applied in two case studies based on argumentative written texts produced by native and non-native speakers of Italian and English. Study 1 shows that morphological complexity varies between native and non-native speakers of Italian, and that it is significantly lower in learners with lower proficiency levels. The MCI is strongly correlated to proficiency, measured with a C-test, and also shows significant correlations with other measures of linguistic complexity, such as lexical diversity and sentence length. Quite a different picture emerges from Study 2, on advanced English learners. Here, morphological complexity remains constant across natives and non-natives, and is not significantly correlated to other text complexity measures. These results point to the fact that morphological complexity in texts is a function of speakers’ proficiency and the specific language under investigation; for some linguistic systems with a relatively simple inflectional morphology, such as English, learners will soon reach a threshold level after which inflectional diversity remains constant.

Beyond poverty: Engaging with input in generative SLA

A generative approach to language acquisition is no different from any other in assuming that target language input is crucial for language acquisition. This discussion note addresses the place of input in generative second language acquisition (SLA) research and the perception in the wider field of SLA research that generative SLA ‘ignores’ the input. This impression may have arisen because generative SLA researchers have tended not to systematically study quantitative distribution of input properties, nor qualitative properties of the input available to learners. We argue that precisely these sorts of studies would be at least beneficial, if not indispensable, to the development of a comprehensive (generative) theory of SLA. Furthermore, a welcome side-effect of more systematic engagement with input would be potential for greater accessibility for generative SLA in the wider field of second language (L2) studies.

Whorf's Lost Argument: Multilingual Awareness

Debates about linguistic relativity commonly focus on one question: Does language affect thought? This yes‐or‐no question does not do justice to the complexity of Whorf's ideas and skirts several issues of great importance to Whorf. My first aim in this article is to recover the arguments that got lost in translation of Whorf's ideas into the Sapir‐Whorf hypothesis. I will show that, for Whorf, languages were also one of the ways in which we think, scientists were not immune to language effects, and the key to advancement of Western science was multilingual awareness. My second aim is to draw on these insights to articulate a Whorfian agenda for the field of second language acquisition (SLA) that asks new questions about second language learning and cognition and expands the boundaries of the field and the scope, duration, and locations of SLA research.

Autonomously Noticing Incorrect Language Use: Does it Improve EFL Learners' Grammatical Accuracy?

Promoting communicative interactions, while simultaneously drawing students’ attention to language form, is considered as a potentially significant area of research in second language acquisition. This study focuses on the effect of transcribing task, as an autonomous noticing activity, on intermediate and advanced EFL learners' grammatical accuracy. The study was conducted in two advanced and two intermediate adult EFL classrooms, with one class in each level of proficiency serving as the control group and the other as the experimental group. Every session, over a period of 20 weeks, a classroom oral discussion task was assigned to both intermediate and advanced learners. For this purpose, learners were divided into groups of three or four in each class. Students were asked to record their groups' conversations each session. Students in the control groups gave their recorded conversations to the teacher without any post-task activity. Unlike the control groups, the students in the experimental groups were engaged in the post-task activity. Working individually, learners in the experimental groups first transcribed the recorded classroom speaking task and autonomously tried to find and correct their own and their peers' grammatical errors. Subsequently, working collaboratively, learners were engaged in further discussion and reformulation of these inaccurate utterances. The results obtained from one-way ANOVA indicated that transcription of oral output with a follow up self and peer correction significantly enhanced the accuracy of EFL learners’ oral production.

Meta-Analysis and Computer-Mediated Communication.

Because of the use of human participants and differing contextual variables, research in second language acquisition often produces conflicting results, leaving practitioners confused and unsure of the effectiveness of specific treatments. This article provides insight into a recent seminal meta-analysis on the effectiveness of computer-mediated communication, providing further statistical evidence of the importance of its results. The significance of the study is examined by looking at the p values included in the references, to demonstrate how results can easily be misconstrued by practitioners and researchers. Lin's conclusion regarding the research setting of the study reports is also evaluated. In doing so, other possible explanations of what may be influencing the results can be proposed.

Exposure is not enough

Child language researchers have often assumed that progress in first language learning depends heavily on language exposure. For example, Hart and Risley (1995) compared children in middle class families with children in lower class families. Based on recordings made across several years in the home, they estimated that by the time the children from lower SES families entered first grade they had heard 30 million fewer words than the middle class children. Researchers and educators have argued that this ‘30 million word gap’ is a primary cause for academic failure of lower SES children in the primary grades in the United States. Researchers in second language acquisition (SLA) research have often postulated a similar linkage between exposure and attainment, both for early and simultaneous bilingual children and later second language learning. Carroll (Carroll) expresses justifiable skepticism regarding such claims regarding the effect of amount of exposure on language attainment. Despite some important differences in conceptualization of the nature of the input, I find her overall analysis compelling and important.

Changes in the linguistic confidence of primary and secondary students in Catalonia: a longitudinal study

ABSTRACTPrevious research in first (L1) and second language (L2) acquisition has provided evidence that linguistic confidence is a key construct that can explain linguistic behaviour. In this paper, we apply previous research in the socio-contextual model of L2 learning to data from Catalonia. More specifically, the paper investigates linguistic confidence towards Catalan and Spanish by students in Catalonia for a period of 5 years, that is, from their last year of primary education to their last year of secondary education. The methodology for the longitudinal study was based on a survey on linguistic confidence in Catalan and Spanish and other sociolinguistic and demographic information by students in five different locations in Catalonia. The results of the study show evidence that (a) linguistic confidence is very high for Catalan and Spanish; (b) there is a relationship between confidence in Spanish and Catalan and the students’ L1; and (c) over time linguistic confidence in both languages increases. These results are discussed in light of current discussions on the stable or dynamic nature of linguistic confidence.

A Discourse-Pragmatic Approach to Teaching Indicative/Subjunctive Mood Selection in the Intermediate Spanish Language Class: New Information versus Reformulation

The aim of a discourse-pragmatic approach to teaching the indicative/subjunctive contrast in Spanish is to engage students to move beyond grammar and semantics and enter the domain of language use in complete texts. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research have mostly focused on the morphology, semantics and syntactic aspects of the subjunctive mood in stand-alone sentences at various levels of proficiency, a perspective reflected in textbooks and instructional materials. This current study addresses the cohesive discursive function performed by the present subjunctive in speakers’ comments when reformulating already known content by the interlocutors. The pedagogical proposal is grounded on the latest linguistic and SLA research on the indicative/subjunctive contrast and on a constructivist, concept, and task-based approach to second language learning. It provides an instructional sample that was implemented in an intermediate-level university class. Further linguistic research on the subjunctive’s communicative functions and L2 acquisition of mood distinction in discourse are needed to inform pedagogical initiatives that address Spanish mood in full texts.

Written corrective feedback in secondary education: Learners’ and teachers’ preferences and perceptions

When dealing with written corrective feedback, most second-language acquisition research has focused on the comparison of different techniques to provide English as a foreign language learners with comments on their performance. Also finding the best strategy which would help learners improve has been on the spotlight. However, little attention has been placed upon learners’ perceptions and preferences towards the written feedback provided. This paper investigates such aspects by analysing results from a questionnaire delivered to 28 last year secondary-education learners and their two respective teachers. After analysing and comparing both groups of participants, results showed that, according to the learners, grammar and vocabulary take precedence over aspects related to organisation and paragraph construction. Moreover, a preference for direct and metalinguistic correction was also observed. Regarding teachers, their perceptions and preferences as observed in the questionnaire were not reflected in their actual teaching practice. Finally, even though there were points of agreement between teachers and their learners, a relevant mismatch on how written corrective feedback is and should be delivered was found.

Contributions of Grand Linguistic Theories to Second Language Acquisition Research and Pedagogy

<p>Research on second language acquisition (SLA) and use has always been enriched by linguistic schools and theories. The purpose of the present paper is give readers a snapshot of contributions grand linguistic theories have made to L2 acquisition research and pedagogy. The grand linguistic theories chosen for review in the present study include <em>Structural Linguistics</em>, <em>Nativism</em>, <em>Functional Linguistics</em>, and <em>Cognitive Linguistics</em>. These four linguistics theories have been, and some of them are, paid much more focus in the field of linguistics than other theories. In fact, the areas of SLA research and pedagogy have been highly influenced by these four grand linguistic theories. However, their impacts on these two areas have not been equal and, as a matter of fact, some of linguistic theories have more influenced SLA research while other theories have had implications more for SLA pedagogy. The contributions of the aforementioned grand linguistic theories to SLA research and pedagogy are discussed, along with criticisms against the contributions of each linguistic theory posed by the rival researchers.</p>

English language education among young learners in East Asia: A review of current research (2004–2014)

The teaching of foreign languages to young learners is growing in popularity around the world. Research in this field, particularly of English as a second/foreign language education in East Asia, is a relatively new area of empirical inquiry, and it has the potential to make significant contributions to child second-language acquisition (Child-SLA) theory building, research methodologies, and policies in East Asia and beyond. This article reviews relevant peer-reviewed literature on English education among young learners in East Asia (China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan). I begin by reviewing policy literature to illustrate the social and policy contexts of early English education, identifying major policy-related concerns. Next, I review empirical studies of English learning and teaching, organizing them by their relevance to the previously identified policy concerns. The article concludes with suggestions for future research.

Future of diagnostic language assessment

Diagnostic language assessment (DLA) has emerged as a major topic of interest among language testers, as evidenced by recent publications of journal articles and special journal issues on this topic (Alderson, Brunfaut, & Harding, 2014; Lee & Sawaki, 2009). Two fundamental goals of DLA are to identify language learners’ weaknesses and deficiencies, as well as their strengths, in the targeted language domains and provide useful diagnostic feedback and guidance for remedial learning and instruction. In other words, DLA seeks to promote further learning designed to address the test-takers’ weaknesses and increase their overall growth potential. Thus, it is important to create meaningful linkages between outcomes of diagnosis and subsequent learning and instruction when designing the DLA system. At the moment, DLA, as a subfield of language assessment, is at an important juncture on its course of development and evolution. In order to advance the field beyond where it stands, breakthroughs can be made on multiple fronts, which include, but are not limited to, refining frameworks and methodology for diagnosis, feedback, and guidance for remedial instruction. One of the urgent issues is to come up with workable frameworks of DLA (whether they are theoretical or practical) that can guide the whole process of designing, developing, implementing, and validating DLA. These require us not only to review previous work and ongoing developments in DLA but also to look into, and gain insights from, various related fields of inquiry, such as the following: (a) fields where diagnosis is frequently practiced; (b) dynamic language assessment; (c) cognitive diagnostic assessment models; (d) technological innovations in assessment and scoring; and (e) feedback research in second language acquisition and writing. The primary goal of this special issue is to bring together expertise and insights from various fields related to DLA, with a view to providing a focused forum through which current thinking and ideas about DLA are actively shared among researchers and practitioners and thereby facilitating development of a shared understanding among language

Co-Curriculum and ESL Student Success: A Case Study in an Intensive English Language Program

ABSTRACT This project examines the relationship between co-curricular activities and ESL student success in an intensive English language program. Extracurricular and co-curricular activities have been linked to the improvement of several factors, such as self-esteem, retention, and grade point average (Astin, 1984, 1999; Bergen-Cico & Viscomi, 2013). Research in second language acquisition has suggested that meaningful interaction between individuals in the target language (L2) will increase a student’s proficiency. Therefore, a ESL student’s further involvement in an intensive English program could have a major impact on not only their academic success (operationalized in this study by the amount of classes that received a passing mark), but also their proficiency. Documented are the lived experiences of four, advanced-level ESL students who are currently enrolled in an intensive English language program on the west coast of the United States. The information gathered through face-to-face interviews and an analysis of each student’s academic transcript is used to see if there is a relationship between the students’ academic involvement in co-curricular activities and their perception of their success.

Exploring big educational learner corpora for SLA research

We consider the opportunities presented by big educational learner corpora for Second Language Acquisition (SLA). In particular, we focus on the EF Cambridge Open Language Database (EFCAMDAT), an open access database of student writings submitted to Englishtown, the online school of EF Education First. EFCAMDAT stands out for its size (33 million words, 85 thousand learners) and a range of 128 writing tasks covering all CEFR levels with data from learners from varying nationalities. We discuss methodological issues arising from analyzing big data resources generated in educational contexts and argue that Natural Language Processing (NLP) is essential for the automated processing of such datasets. As a study case, we follow the developmental trajectory of relative clauses, a construction that necessitates deeper syntactic analysis. We consider specific issues that can affect the developmental trajectory, including task effects, formulaic language and national language effects.

Innovative Research and Practices in Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism ed. by John W. Schwieter (review)

Innovative Research and Practices in Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism ed. by John W. Schwieter (review)