Second Half Of XVIII Research Articles

О ФОРМИРОВАНИИ РУССКОГО НАУЧНОГО ЯЗЫКА ВО ВТОРОЙ ПОЛОВИНЕ XVIII – НАЧАЛЕ XIX ВЕКОВ

Studying the history of the Russian language of science is necessary primarily to understand the trends and prospects of its development. The language of Russian science today is heavily influenced by English, which is due to the requirement to write articles for journals in English, and to numerous international conferences where even Russian scientists make reports in English, as well as to the spread of terminology in English, in place of the conventional Russian terminology, which for many seems a marker of “novelty” in approach. It is possible to change the approach only if we understand the tendencies in the Russian scientific language at different stages of its historical development. This article is devoted to one of the earliest periods in the formation of the Russian scientific language – the second half of XVIII – early XIX centuries. It was during this period that the first Russian scholars appeared, writing in their native language. And the increasing translation activity leads to the appearance of quality works of a scientific nature (encyclopedias, academic books, and dictionaries) – and these works become a reference point for the emergence of original scientific texts. Finally, in 1783 the Russian Academy was founded, and its first work was the Dictionary of the Russian Academy (1789-1794). The article analyzes certain features of the scientific language at that period and their reflection in the current scientific language. The author concludes that the formation of the science language in XVIII – early XIX centuries was contradictory: the scientific language sought to avoid morphological and syntactic innovations and at the same time the vocabulary of the language sought imagery and vividness, which led to the formation of terminology with its internal form in the Russian language.

Пошук загального у праві як змістовної подібності національних правопорядків (друга половина XVIII – перша третина ХІХ ст.)

The purpose of the article is to determine the common conceptual foundations of different theories for finding common ground in law and consider a philosophical and rational approach to understanding the substantive similarity in the development of national legal systems in the second half of XVIII – first third of XIX century. Methodology. The meaningful element of the subject of research is a comparative legal methodological approach, derived from the comparative philosophy, which identifies the object of study, defines its subject, integrates into a single set of other methodological approaches and methods of cognition. Scientific novelty. Bankruptcy of the idea of he possibility of formalizing any General in law in the form of a separate legal order was comprehended and proclaimed by the scientists of the second half of the XVIII – the first third of the nineteenth century. The search for General in law was manifested, among other, in attempts to comprehend the meaningful similarities in the development of legal systems. Within the philosophical-rational approach to understanding the similarity of legal systems, reflecting elements of ius-naturalist thinking and relying on the ideas of critical Kant, the following key concepts could be distinguished: law as mathematics (invariant extra-local and non-historical logic); parallel independent development; pure reason, which is formed historically; the doctrinal closeness of legal systems. In our opinion, for all these concepts, the following general principles are characteristic: 1) the decisive or influential factor of legal development is the ideas that in their pure forms are or become international ones; 2) regardless of whether the fundamentals of these ideas are substantive (laid down in the nature of human thinking), or purely historical, they develop, acquire different national forms, spread in space; 3) the influence of such ideas on specific societies and their national legal orders is not absolute, it is differentiated depending on physical and social features or competes with the original ideas, carriers or creators of which these societies are. Consequently, it was discussed whether it is possible, in the conditions of plurality and non-coordination of the content of national legal systems, the essential unity and the stadiarity of the world development of the principles of positive law. It can be argued that scholars in this period recognized the limited suitability, the relativity of the idea of such development – as one of the immanent tendencies towards doctrinal convergence (along with the tendency to preserve and deepen the individuality), criticizing its possible teleological implications. Conclusions. The formation of doctrinal unity between national and state legal orders can be seen as an opportunity to objectify of common in law. In the process of gradual convergence of positions of scholars, including leaders of historical and historical-philosophical schools, they identified a single denominator of the existence of different types of law – legal consciousness / spirit of law. Keywords: legal picture of the world; general in law; philosophy of law; convergence of legal systems; legal doctrine; stadiality in law.

ESTABLISHMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL EDUCATION AND SCIENCE IN THE WESTERN UKRAINE (XVIII - XIX CENTURY)

The research analyses the history of development and organization of medical educational establishments in the Western Ukraine in the second half of XVIII–XIX century.
 The article discusses the method of analysing bibliographic catalogues, classification and systematization of primary sources in History of Medicine and Pedagogy, and chronological method that identifies the establishment and development of medical education during different historical periods.
 The paper describes the structure of medical education system in the Western Ukraine in the second half of XVIII–XIX century and summarizes available data about professional and scientific activity of the outstanding Ukrainian doctors of this period.
 The main characteristics of medical education development in the mentioned historic period are: gradual increase in the number of medical establishments, medical departments, faculties, and students; improvement and transformation of medical personnel education and training.

A rede urbana no oeste do rio sapucaí - Cabo Verde: arraial, freguesia e vila

O artigo apresenta o estudo sobre a formação do núcleo urbano, que hoje corresponde à cidade de Cabo Verde, no sudoeste do estado de Minas Gerais. Na segunda metade do século XVIII, o território em questão fazia parte da rede urbana do Rio Sapucaí, que abrangia quase todo o sudoeste da Capitania de Minas Gerais, fazendo divisa com a Capitania de São Paulo. Esse território foi palco de disputas entre as Capitanias e os Bispados de Minas Gerais e São Paulo. O artigo também apresenta uma análise da gênese e da estrutura da forma urbana de Cabo Verde, núcleo de povoamento que se origina como arraial de mineração. O estudo de caso em questão busca cobrir uma lacuna da historiografia, pois contempla a análise de uma cidade que pouco cresceu desde a sua origem, e cuja forma demonstra um modo luso brasileiro de fundar núcleos urbanos na segunda metade do século XVIII.

THE INFLUENCE OF STATE POLICY OF THE AUSTRIAN MONARCHY ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN GALICIA (SECOND HALF OF XVIII–XIX CENTURIES)

The article deals with the impact of the state policy of the Austrian monarchy on the socio-economic development in Galicia (second half of XVIII–XIX centuries). Galicia was in a state of economic decline from 1772 to the time of its incorporation in the structure of Austria. Industrial revival in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth since the mid-eighteenth century almost didn’t have an effect on Galicia. The main indicators of the economic backwardness of Galicia were the low level of social division of labor, stagnation in industry and trade, although in Europe there were significant economic shifts in connection with the onset of the industrial revolution. The Austrian authorities considered Galicia and Bukovina as the source of replenishment of the state treasury, cheap labor and recruits for the Austrian army, as well as a buffer zone with the Russian Empire. At the end of the eighteenth century Austrian officials took over the initiative in the socio-economic development of Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathia. At the beginning of the twentieth century the industry related to military production began to develop actively in Galicia, The craft came out from the state of decline, there were created the enterprises of the manufactory type. The largest state investments in Galicia were railways and fortresses – Przemysl, Krakow and other cities. Economic development in the region was mainly associated with private oil and salt industry. The period of the XIX–XX centuries was marked by the significant increase in the social activity of the Ukrainian peasantry. The economic basis of this phenomenon was the emergence and development of a cooperative movement in Galicia. It was due to the fact that the Western Ukrainian intelligentsia tried to improve the situation of the peasantry and the urban poor, involving them in the creation of cooperation. At the same time, in the Austrian period in Galicia there were also positive changes in the socio-economic development of Galicia and in particular its main city – Lviv. It is concluded that the Austrian Empire, compared to the Russian Empire, had a more liberal political regime. Being of Galicia as the part of Austria from the last quarter of the eighteenth century influenced the renewal of spiritual life of the Ukrainians of Halychyna, there were introduced into the public consciousness and practice many elements inherented to the culture of Germans, Czechs, Croats and other European nations. In other words, Galician Ukrainians were involved in a single territorial and ideological space with inhabitants of other territories, – which is called Europe nowadays. The reformist policy of Maria Theresa somewhat restricted the tyranny of the Polish ruling elite on the Western Ukrainian lands, provided conditions for raising the material and educational level of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Orthodox clergy and peasantry. Reforms of the «enlightened absolutism» have led to important changes in the field of education, which received the state funding. As belonging to the largest coronal territories, the Galicia became a peculiar legislative area, the test site of the new legal acts of the Austrian Parliament. And only after such sort of approbation provided to positive results, the validity of these legal acts spread to other parts of the Austrian monarchy. Galicia, one of the first in the Austrian monarchy, was influenced by the Western European policy of «enlightened absolutism», the state and legal reforms of the second half of the eighteenth century. After the revolution of 1848–1849 it was adopted a separate Constitution of 1850 for Galicia, which showed the significant role of Galicia in the history of the Austrian monarchy.

ОРГАНІЗАЦІЯ МЕДИЧНОЇ ОСВІТИ НА ЗАХІДНОУКРАЇНСЬКИХ ЗЕМЛЯХ У ДРУГІЙ ПОЛОВИНІ XVIII – XIX СТ.

Мета роботи – проаналізувати історію виникнення та організації навчальних закладів для підготовки медичних працівників на західноукраїнських землях у другій половині XVIII – XIX ст.Основна частина. У статті використаний бібліографічний метод вивчення бібліотечних каталогів; класифікація та систематизація джерел з історії медицини, педагогіки; хронологічний метод, що дозволив проаналізувати особливості становлення і розвитку медичної освіти у різні історичні періоди.У статті відтворено структуру системи медичної освіти на західноукраїнських землях у другій половині XVIII – XIX ст.; уточнено відомості про професійну та наукову діяльність видатних українських лікарів цього періоду.Висновок. Визначальними критеріями процесу розвитку медичної освіти можна назвати: поступове зростання мережі закладів медичної освіти, збільшення числа кафедр, збільшення кількості студентів і викладачів у них, розширення змісту навчання, зміна рівня професійної підготовки медиків.

Зародження банківської кредитної системи в Російській імперії у другій половині XVIII – на початку ХІХ ст.

Зародження банківської кредитної системи в Російській імперії у другій половині XVIII – на початку ХІХ ст.

Предпочтения в получении образования российского дворянства: на примере генералитета второй половины XVIII – первой четверти XIX века

Предпочтения в получении образования российского дворянства: на примере генералитета второй половины XVIII – первой четверти XIX века

The spiritual and educational activities of the Tatars in the Kazakh Steppe in the context of the Russian Empire’s domestic policy (second half of XVIII – the beginning of XX century)

This paper discusses the spiritual and educational activities of the Tatars in Kazakhs steppe in pre-revolutionary period. The Empress Catherine II let mass penetration of the Tatar mullahs into the steppe zone. They performed some of the functions of the tsar officials in addition to religious and educational activities. They completed parish registers and directed civil proceedings. The Tatar language became the main language of the clerical work in the steppe zone. After the Crimean and Caucasian war the attitude of imperial administration to the activities of Tatar preachers changed dramatically. Since that time, Islam and Muslim education in the Steppe zone started to be considered by officials as a threat to the Russian state. The Russian government limited the powers of the mullahs, subdued Muslim schools to the Ministry of Education and strictly regulated it, tried to introduce the Russian language into the mosques and madrasas. Minister of Internal Affairs through its secret messages made local administration offices translate clerical works from the Tatar language on Arab ligature to the missionary Kazakh language on Cyrillic alphabet. It was also strongly recommended to replace Tatar interpreters to Kazakh or Russian ones. Despite the internal policy of the Russian state had changed, the Tartars built powerful spiritual and educational infrastructure in the Steppe zone. At the beginning of the XX century it included the old and new madrasas, mosques, Muslim Library and publishing houses. In Muslim schools prominent people of Tatar and Kazakh culture were educated, first books and newspapers in both languages were issued in theses publishing houses. The spiritual and educational activity of the Tatars played a significant role in the formation of the Kazakh and Tatar intelligentsia and led to the rise of religious and political consciousness of both nations.

Neogothic Orthodox Churches and Chapels Built Near St. Petersburg and in the Russian Province (the Second Half of XVIII – the Early XIX Centuries)

The article is devoted to the development of religious buildings of Neogothic style and their stylistic features in the second half of the XVIII century. During the preromantic period the hobby for a Neogothic style in Russia has been connected with idealized idea of customers about the Middle Ages. The gothic style attracted them with exotic shapes. The desire of customers to create illusion of travel to the past over the different countries, typical for a sentimentalism era. was one of the reasons for the emergence of neogothic constructions in the Russian Empire.

Religious Buildings of the Period of an Early Russian Neogothic Style (the Second Half of XVIII – the early XIX centuries)

The article is devoted to the development of religious buildings of Neogothic style and their stylistic features in the second half of the XVIII century. Each new building of this period has an unusual combination of new compositional techniques that illustrates the continuity of architects creativity who wanted to create something new and different, but at the same time causing the association with the Middle Ages.

РОЛЬ ИМЕНИ В ПОЭТИЧЕСКОЙ МИФОЛОГИИ У. БЛЕЙКА

Smirnova Olga Mikhailovna – candidate of philology, associate professor of foreign literature dpt. Russian State Pedagogic University of A.I. Herzen. Abstract . The second half of XVIII – the beginning of the XIX century in European art is the time more obvious crisis of rationalist ideology and normative poetics, with the inability to reflect and admit the irrational aspects of reality and human psyche. Rationalism crisis causes activation of myth-creating potential of culture. Pathos of early Romanticism is largely determined by the intention to syncretism, similar to syncretism of mythological thinking; artistic expression tends towards universalism of natural myths. An example of this is the poetic mythology of the first English romantic W. Blake. Nomination actualizes the most important aspects of poetic mythology of Blake as the ideological and axiological models alternative to the system of artistic rationalism. Blake’s myth-making, based on tradition and a system developed by the philosophical knowledge, however, overcomes the discourse of analytic speculation, bringing to life the pre-reflexive, archaic layers of culture. Artistic consciousness of transition period rebuilds its own identity, appealing to the myths of creation; stable images and scenes of aesthetic categories. Romantic art aspires the role of a new mythology, where the only carrier of transcendental experience is an artist, a creative potency rooted in the reality of the creative imagination. Key words: name, causality, coherence, myth, myth-making, nomination, symbol, eschatology .

The Library of Tobolsk Theological Seminary (the second half of XVIII - the first half of XIX century): Description of the Library Holding

The article is devoted to the history of creation and development of the Tobolsk Theological Seminary and Seminary Library in XVIII-XIX centuries. There were used various archival and literary references, allowing to define the place of seminary library in the history of the region.

Rus Tarih Yazıcılığında Kırgızlar (18. Yüzyılın İkinci Yarısı - 20. Yüzyılın Başı)

Bu makalede 18. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında ve 20. yüzyılın başlarında Rus tarih yazıcılığında geçen Kırgızların tarihi ile ilgili eserler analiz edilmektedir. Kırgızlar ile ilgili problemleri ele alan müellifleri, çalışmalarına göre şarkiyatçı-araştırmacı, askeri araştırmacı, Rus seyyahları ve idari bürokratlar şeklinde dört gruba ayırmak mümkündür. Rus tarih yazıcılığında Kırgızların tarihi birçok alanda ele alınmış ve açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Kırgızlar ile ilgili problemleri aksettiren gazete ve dergilere, özellikle "Turkestanskiye Vedomosti" gazetesinin ve "Turkestanskiy Sbornik" adlı derginin külliyatındaki bilgiler değerlendirilmeye çalışılmıştır. Kırgızlar ile ilgili bilgi veren eserlerin verdikleri bilgiler ve buralardaki hatalı değerlendirmeler üzerine durulmuştur. Ayrıca günümüz Kırgız tarihinin aktüel konularına da değinilmiştir.