Second Half Of 20th Century Research Articles

Beijing Subway and the Political and Economic Development of China

This research paper analyses the main purposes the Beijing subway system, which served from 1969 to now as a tool of political defense as well as a transportation system. The notion to construct the system arose in 1953, but the first section of today’s Line 1 did not open until September 1969.  Today, the Beijing subway system is the world’s busiest in terms of annual ridership and the world’s second longest subway system, ranking only behind Shanghai’s. (Xinhua News Agency, 2017, http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2017-12/30/c_1122188643.htm.) The political and economic development and trends in China in the second half of 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century, such as the Cultural Revolution and the 2008 Olympics, affected the subway system’s development greatly. This paper examines Chinese documents with the aim of providing a general understanding of the development and purpose of the Beijing system, through political, economic and technical analysis, among others, of its history.
 There exists almost no document, ¬¬either in English or Chinese, that analyzes the development of Beijing’s subway system. However, this topic should be considered important, as it provides an alternative way of viewing the development of China and its governing principles throughout its late-20th century and current-day history.

A review of experimental approaches to fracture toughness evaluation at the micro-scale

The discipline of fracture mechanics was born almost a century ago through the pioneering work of A.A. Griffith, and saw particularly rapid growth in the second half of 20th century when it became an indispensable tool in the development of advanced transportation, civil construction, and energy systems. Forty years ago, Materials & Design published a series of papers devoted to the state-of-the-art in the field of Fracture Mechanics. The present review reflects the lasting legacy and surviving importance of this theme: it is associated with the Virtual Special Issue on nanoscale materials testing and characterisation, and focuses on the modern experimental approaches to fine scale fracture toughness evaluation, with particular emphasis on micro-cantilever bending and micro-pillar splitting. The fundamental aspects of these approaches are overviewed, and their application to a range of systems is described. Implications for further development of these methods are discussed.

Closed Urban Blocks versus Open Housing Estate Structures: Sustainability Surveys in Brno, Czech Republic

A prominent place in the spatial arrangement of Czech as well as other post-socialist, Central European cities belongs to 19th century closed urban blocks and the open panel housing estates which were erected during the socialism era in the second half of 20th century. The urban characteristics of these two fundamentally diverse types of residential structures have, as we suppose, a different impact on the sustainable development of the urban area. The amount and character of local greenery, the spatial arrangement and accessibility of the courtyards, the spatial forms of the surrounding buildings and many other factors can influence the ecological stability of the area, its hygienic qualities, the intensity and way of using by various social groups, and also e.g. the prices of real estates. These and many other phenomena indicate the ecological, hygienic, social and economic sustainability of the urban area. The research methodology evaluates specific measureable indicators of sustainability within a range from 0 to 10 points where 5 points correspond to the general standard in the area, 0 points indicate degradation, and 10 points indicate the highest contribution to sustainable development. The survey results are reflected in the overall sustainability index and in the residents’ satisfaction index that reflects the subjective satisfaction based on questionnaires surveys. The paper analyses the residential structures in the Central European city of Brno, Czech Republic. The case studies of the urban blocks near the city centre and of the panel housing estate Brno - Vinohrady are compared. The results imply that a considerable positive impact on the sustainable development of the area should be ascribed to the green closed urban blocks near the city centre. These urban blocks with a closed courtyard provide a quality outdoor environment with a certain level of privacy. This factor can significantly support the development of local community.

Heritage of Early Modernism in Residential Architecture in Sarajevo

Appearance of modern architecture in the early 20th century brought revolutionary changes in the meaning and sense of architectural design. New design implies a new way of life of modern man and entirely new approach to residential architecture. The new ideal of residential architecture becoming sunlit living units oriented toward the green, free of bulky furniture, with flexible, open plan, equipped and materialized in accordance to the time. Pure and simple design without decorations started to replace eclectic artistic expressions of the past times. In many European countries, a modernism was reaching its peak during the 1920s and 1930s by promoting and strengthening the ideas of the Bauhaus School and Athens charter and by increasing a number of young architects that have finished schools of architecture in Central European universities and continue to work with significant names of modernism. Such the case was in Sarajevo with a numerous of architects that worked from the second half of the 1920s and later. They have developed remarkable pieces of modernist architecture that are not appropriately treated by institutions and understood by wider public. The purpose of paper is to contribute indicating of value of such architecture that should result with raising of awareness about its importance and future proper interventions based on experience of similar projects related to protection and promotion of modern architectural heritage, that were realized in Europe and wider. Early modernism in residential architecture has brought tectonic changes in development of architecture and cities, quality and way of human living. It was just beginning in creation of extraordinary avant-garde modernism that existed during period of Socialist Yugoslavia in second half of 20th century. A comprehensive understanding of modernism from mentioned period in study case of Sarajevo and promotion its values will help to build positive and honest relation to heritage which was part of common international European identity.

Pokušaj ubikacije crkve Mati Božje bučjanske

The church of Mati Božja Bucjanska is mentioned in charter of St. Panteleimon of Athos monastery from 1395 and in contract of adelphates, between Lazarevic family members and same monastery, from next year. The church in village of Bucje, in Trstenik municipality, central Serbia, was built by unknown noble family before year 1380/1381. The archaeological excavations, during last decade of 20th century, revealed existence of medieval church on hilltop, near centre of village, next to 19th century cemetery. The architectural elements of original medieval sacral monument have all features of the Morava style church built during second half of 14th century. We have determined bounder of church property on basis of data presented in charter of 1395 and Ottoman Turkish defters from beginning of 16th century.

Crkvena pripadnost kralja Dragutina posle 1291. Godine

The aim of this paper is to re-examine the church affiliation of Serbian King Stefan Dragutin (1276-1282) in the period from 1291 to 1316. Shortly after the descent from the Serbian throne, Dragutin became one of the most powerful Hungarian feudal lords. Since 1288 he expanded his relations with Rome, which culminated in 1291 when the pope took him under his protection. This detail had been used by a certain authors to acknowledge Dragutin as the unquestionable Roman Catholic who remained so until his death in 1316. This interpretation is particularly expressed in Croatian historiography, from the second half of 19th century until the end of 20th century. It can also be found with some authors within the Serbian historiography, but unlike the Croatian, Serbian historiography did not accept this interpretation. Contemporary Serbian historians see Dragutin's transition to Rome's safeguard as an act of political pragmatism whereas the Croatian historians persist in the interpretation that Dragutin, having received papal protection, became a Roman Catholic. Some even wrote that he remained so for the rest of his life. The problem with this assertion is that it is very superficial and is not subjected to any deeper critical analysis of the original sources. Moreover, it is noticeable that not all of the historical sources were used by Croatian historians who dealt with this topic. The sole identification of the act of papal protection with the change of religion, which is insisted upon, has no foundation. All of this is discussed in the first part of this paper. The second part of this paper is focused on further insight and critical analysis of the sources which treat Dragutin's religious feelings after March 15, 1291. Clearly all of the sources address him as "schismatic" which is a term used in the middle Ages to mark an Orthodox Christians. Even if at some point, Dragutin became a protégé of the Roman Catholic Church, he most certainly agreed to this only formally and remained an Orthodox for the rest of his life.

Борьба “за” и “против” идентичности во внутриполитических процессах

The article analyzes the withstanding of two worldviews – traditionalism and antitraditionalism – in the context of the conflict between the “right populism” and the modern liberalism. The authors define the ideology of the modern liberal order as antitraditionalism because it differs from the classical liberalism and should not be mixed with neoliberalism. Its basic feature is the intention to overcome every identity, because the identity, according to the antitraditionalist ideology, chains humans with narrow frames of stereotypes imposed from outside. The overcoming of identity opens the world of new possibilities and new values. In the chapter on the basics of antitraditionalism, the authors distinguish two ideological sources of this worldview. Firstly, it is Christianity that claims the principles of equality. The second source is Marxism where “being defines conscience”, and both the “discriminated conscience of the exploited” and the “suppressing conscience of the dominating class” exist. The progress of the new ideology is described in the chapter on the revolution of antitraditionalism. The influence of the struggle between two trends on inner political processes is analyzed in the chapter on the party delimitations and political discussions. It is stressed that Russia was a pioneer of antitraditionalism in the Soviet period but now counters the new “liberal” values. The traditionalist wave in Europe and USA was provoked by immigration crisis, discussion around issues of gender and perception of nationalism. The authors conclude that the beginning of a new ideological and political fight in the modern world as well as the occurrence of the traditionalist reaction to a peaceful antitraditionalist revolution (which has been taking place since the second half of 20th century) is a regular process.

Asocianismo coral en el Cádiz del S. XIX: El orfeón gaditano

The documentation that has come up to us from Cadiz Chorus is very scarce. Nevertheless, it must have been a very popular society in the second half of 19th century. The musicological tradition reduces the incipient activity of the choral movement to the north of Spain. At present, it is necessary to claim the role of the periphery. The working grouping, the sense of nation, the musical pedagogy of base, are the elements that set in the choruses. Definitely, tradition has constructed different speeches on the Chorus on which it is worth to go in depth, refutate or put into context.

Toward ideational collective action: The notions of common good and of the state in late 19th century social liberalism

The aim of this paper is to analyze notions of common good and of the state in late 19th century British social liberalism and their relation to collective action of the citizens. The author shows that British social liberals argued for a type of state that uses top down strategy to encourage collective action in order to transform individuals into a socially responsible groups, i.e. good citizens. The paper focuses on philosophical works of F. H. Bradley, ethics of T. H. Green and political philosophy of B. Bosanquet, analyzing their efforts to reconceptualize ideas of classical liberalism and utilitarian doctrine of the individual, society and the state in light of emerging influence of leftist social movements. The author argues that the works of British social liberals are a foundation of the state and society which will dominate liberalism in the second half of 20th century, i.e. the idea of the welfare state.

“to work only precisely, nicely...” The brigade logs, as sources of the researchof the working class of the Hungarian large-scale industryin the second half of 20th century

“to work only precisely, nicely...” The brigade logs, as sources of the researchof the working class of the Hungarian large-scale industryin the second half of 20th century

Браки сельских татар-мусульман во второй половине XIX в. (на материалах метрических книг деревни Красная Кадка из фондов Государственного архива Республики Татарстан и Национального архива Республики Башкортостан)

Браки сельских татар-мусульман во второй половине XIX в. (на материалах метрических книг деревни Красная Кадка из фондов Государственного архива Республики Татарстан и Национального архива Республики Башкортостан)

Еволюція наукових основ застосування ґрунтозахисного землеробства на Полтавщині у другій половині ХХ століття

Еволюція наукових основ застосування ґрунтозахисного землеробства на Полтавщині у другій половині ХХ століття

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL SITUATION IN THE ILIA ERA IN GEORGIA

The article offers a discussion of the socioeconomic processes in Georgia in the second half of 19th century characterized with significant changes in socioeconomic, political and cultural life of Georgian people. In the mentioned period, capitalistic production relations emerged earlier have developed and this was followed by fundamental changes in balance of power between classes, public thinking and sphere of material and mental life. Due to geo-strategic location of Georgia, the foreign relations were decisive for the social development of the country. Historically, the process of internal consolidation and national integration has permanently been delayed by the conquerors. Neighborhood relations with Russia have played the particular role in the foreign policies of Georgia.

A Comparative Study of Two Albanian Post-Byzantine Icons Attributed to Simoni i Ardenices

Aims: The present study is part of a project concerning the characterisation of a limited number of selected Albanian Byzantine and post-Byzantine icons, through the identification of pigments, of painting technique and the state of conservation of the artworks. The Albanian iconographers produced an extraordinary amount of icons from the 14th till the 19th century, and over six thousand of them are kept in the Museum of Medieval Art of Korça (Albania). This paper refers to the results obtained in the study of two artworks, the first one by Simoni i Ardenices an important Albanian painter of XVII century, and the second one attributed to him.
 Study Design: The present work is part of a more general study concerning Albanian Byzantine and post-Byzantine icons.
 Place and Duration of Study: Museum of Medieval Art of Korça, Albania, between June 2008 and July 2009.
 Methodology: The work was conducted by non-destructive methods, X-ray fluorescence, visible light reflectance spectrophotometry and UV fluorescence analysis, according to a systematic procedure developed in the same Chemical Physical Laboratory for Cultural Heritage. A number of areas, for each painting, were chosen in order to carry out the measurements. With this procedure, we could identify the inorganic pigments from their characteristic features. Moreover, the study of the chemical physical properties of paintings is of fundamental importance for any accurate restoration intervention. 
 Results and Conclusion: The present work, concerning the study of two icons of the second half of 17th century by Simoni i Ardenices, has allowed us to identify the painting technique and the palette used in these works of art. Moreover, the areas of the paintings in which old restorations have been made have also been identified.

Romantic Medievalism from a New Comparative Perspective

From certain point of view a desperate defense of an aesthetic doctrine of classicism, undertaken by Jan Śniadecki, a Polish mathematician and astronomer of the eighteenth century, resembles the E. R. Curtius’ thesis on “Latinism” as a universal factor integrating European culture; it may be stated that post-Stanislavian classical writers in Poland were driven by the same “concern for the preservation of Western culture” which motivated Ernst Robert Curtius in the times of the Third Reich and after its collapse. But the noble-minded intentions were in both cases grounded on similarly distorted perspective, which ensued from a mistificatory attitude towards a non-Latin heritage of the European culture. The range of that mystification or delusion has been fully revealed by findings made by modern so-called new comparative mythology/philology. Another aspect of the problem is an uniform model of the Middle Ages, partially correlated with the Enlightenment-based stereotype of “the dark Middle Ages”, which despite of its anachronism existed in literary studies for a surprisingly long period of time. Although the Romantic Movement of 18th – 19th centuries has been quite correctly acknowledged as an anti-Latinistic upheaval, its real connections with certain traditions of Middle Ages still remain not properly understood. Some concepts concerning Macpherson’s The Works of ossian, put forward by modern ethnology, may yield clues to the research on the question. As suggested by Joseph Falaky Nagy, Macpherson’s literary undertaking may by looked into as a parallel to Acallam na Senórach compiled in Ireland between 11th and 13th centuries: in both cases to respond to threats to the Gaelic culture there arose a literary monument and compendium of the commendable past with the core based on the Fenian heroic tradition that was the common legacy for the Irish and Highlanders. Taking into consideration some other evidence, it can be ascertained that Celtic and Germanic revival initiated in the second half of 18th century was not only one of the most important impulses for the Romantic Movement, but it was also, in a sense, an actual continuation of the efforts of mediaeval writers and compilers (Geoffrey of Monmouth, Snorri Sturluson, Saxo Grammaticus, anonymous compilers of Lebor gabála Érenn and Acallam, Wincenty Kadłubek), who would successfully combine Latin, i.e. classical, and ecclesiastical erudition with a desire to preserve and adapt in a creative way their own “pagan” and “barbarian” legacy. A special case of this (pre)Romantic revival concerns Slavic cultures, in particular the Polish one. Lack of source data on the oldest historical and cultural tradition of Slavic languages, especially in the Western region, and no record about Slavic tradition in highbrow literary culture induced two solutions: the first one was a production of philological forgeries (like Rukopis královédvorský and Rukopis zelenohorský), the second one was an attempt to someway reconstruct that lost heritage. Works of three Romantic historians, W. Surowiecki, W. A. Maciejowski, F. H. Lewestam, shows the method. Seemingly contradicting theories they put forward share common ground in aspects which are related to the characteristics of the first Slavic societies: a sense of being native inhabitants, pacifism, rich natural resources based on highly-effective agriculture, dynamic demography, a flattened social hierarchy and physical prowess. The fact of even greater importance is that the image of that kind has the mythological core, the circumstance which remains hitherto unnoticed. Polish historians not only tended to identify historical ancient Slavs with mythical Scandinavian Vanir (regarding it obvious), but also managed to recall the great Indo-European theme of ”founding conflict” (in Dumézilian terms), despite whole that mythological model being far beyond the horizon of knowledge at that time. Despite all anachronisms, lack of knowledge and instrumental involvement in aesthetic, political or religious ideology, Romanticism really started the restitution of the cultural legacy of the Middle Ages, also in domain of linguistic and philological research. The consequences of that fact should be taken into account in literary history studies.

Residential buildings in healthcare resort Szczawno-Zdroj in the second-half of 20th century

The article focuses on the development of housing in Szczawno-Zdroj in the second half of the twentieth century. The image of this place was shaped for centuries as the town and the spa located in this area developed and mainly consisted of facilities associated with health resorts.
 Based on an analysis of how housing developed in the discussed period, regarding both the shape of buildings and their location on the city plan, the author determines the degree to which new buildings interfere with the existing infrastructure with particular emphasis on their impact on the image of the historical part of the city which is mainly shaped by spa facilities. The study analyzed the impact of residential housing of this period on the traditional cultural landscape of Szczawno-Zdroj.

Characterization of the mistura alloy used for Venetian sesino coins: 16th century

The information provided by material investigations on ancient coins is interesting in many respects, as concerns the archaeological and historical research. In this study a set of Venetian sesino coins, minted over a period ranging from 1554 until 1605, have been investigated in order to shed light on some aspects of the so‐called mistura (mixture) alloy. The widespread diffusion of these relatively low‐value coins of the Venetian Republic, commonly used in commercial transactions in the second half of 16th century, also outside the territories of the Republic, makes them an important proxy to be used in the reconstruction of the political and historical events of the period. The specific issue of the actual composition of the mistura alloy is herewith addressed for the first time, using a combined approach based on X‐ray fluorescence and X‐ray diffraction nondestructively applied to the analysis of the samples. It turns out that the mistura alloy, traditionally regarded as a Cu‐Ag two phase alloy, over the latest period of circulation of the sesino coins, was actually made of copper only, still containing minor concentrations of lead, to be regarded as an impurity of the alloy and not as an intentional addition.

HEALTH AND PEACE: GLOBAL, REGIONAL AND LOCAL PERSPECTIVE

HEALTH AND PEACE: GLOBAL, REGIONAL AND LOCAL PERSPECTIVE

Significant works of forestry research from the second half of 20th century in Slovakia

The contribution is published on the occasion of the 120th anniversary of the establishment of a forestry research organisation in Slovakia and the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the Czechoslovak Republic. We present important forestry research works, which were written by former (no longer alive) workers of the Forest Research Institute (FRI) in Zvolen in the second half of 20th century. The works (30 works in total) were divided into seven scientific areas: biology and silviculture (five works), forest protection (four works), forest management (five works), forestry mechanisation and harvest-production technologies (four works), forestry economics (five works), hunting (three works), natural environment (four works). First, summary information on selected works in a specific area was presented. Then, individual works from the specific scientific areas were characterised in more detail. Their value for the development of science and research as well as for the practical forestry was presented. Moreover, their importance for the present time was addressed. The paper presents only a very limited selection of a great number of works by FRI workers published in the second half of 20th century. The table with the information on the periods, when the individual significant researchers worked at FRI, is presented at the end of the paper.

A Useful, Delightful, and Good Reading: How Maria and Antonia Ponti Conceived a Library for Women

In the second half of 19th century, newborn Italy was invaded by innovative ideas supported by democratic, liberal, and socialist intellectuals who wanted to renew social life, economy, and moral values by spreading their ideas both in politics and in everyday life. Right-wing reaction used the same methods of communication and persuasion: the publication of journals and books and their promotion in reading cabinets and public libraries. Maria and Antonia Ponti, two upper-middle-class sisters who married into aristocracy, used their influence and resources to advance the status of women in society. They founded associations and libraries (in Ravenna, Imola, and Bergamo) with the theoretical support of a network of Italian intellectuals, including Cor-rado Ricci, Vilfredo Pareto, and Maffeo Pantaleoni. The philanthropic actions of the sisters, who combined their Catholic and conservative point of view with the improvement of the condition of women, have handed down a remarkable legacy in the form of books and a collection of laces.