Seawater Desalination Technology Research Articles

Carbon Footprint of Seawater Desalination Technologies: A Review

Abstract As an important and effective way of mitigating water shortages, desalination has steadily and rapidly increased its global capacity over the decades. This raises concern about its environmental impacts, especially its carbon footprint (CF). Although the CF of desalination has been extensively studied, the existing literature lacks reviews exclusively for it. To help fill the research gap, this study presents a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the CF of seawater desalination technologies, including the conventional reverse osmosis (RO), multi-stage flash (MSF), multi-effect distillation (MED), electrodialysis (ED), and mechanical vapor compression (MVC), and the emerging membrane distillation (MD) and humidification–dehumidification (HDH). To our knowledge, this is the first review that focuses on the CF of seawater desalination. A general procedure for assessing the CF of a desalination system is discussed. The CF data of 211 scenarios from 34 studies published from 2004 to 2023 are reviewed and analyzed, with special focuses on the CF of different technologies, the roles of different life-cycle phases and material/energy flows, and the mitigation measures. The results highlight the CF advantage of RO and low-carbon heat-driven MSF, MED, and MD, and emphasize the dominant role of the operational energy consumption (the amount, the form, and especially the source of the energy) in the CF of desalination. This review improves the understanding of the CF of seawater desalination technologies and of the ways to reduce it.

A PAM hydrogel surface-coated hydroponic bamboo evaporator with efficient thermal utilization for solar evaporation

Solar-driven interfacial water purification emerges as a sustainable technology for seawater desalination and wastewater treatment to address the challenge of water scarcity. Currently, the energy losses via radiation and convection to surrounding environment minimize its energy efficiency. Therefore, it is necessary to develop strategies to minimize the heat losses for efficient water purification. Here, a novel evaporator was developed through the in situ gelation of PAM hydrogel on the surface carbonized hydroponic bamboo (PSC) to promote energy efficiency. The inherent porous and layered network structures of bamboo, in synergy with the functional hydration capacity of PAM hydrogel, facilitated adequate water transportation, while reducing evaporation enthalpy. The PAM hydrogel firmly covered on the photothermal layer surface effectively minimized the radiation and convection heat losses, while further harvesting those thermal energy that would otherwise dissipate into the surrounding environment. The reduced thermal conductivity of PSC served as a thermal insulator as well, obstructing heat transfer to bulk water and thus diminishing conduction losses. Consequently, the rational designed PSC could efficiently convert solar energy to purified water, leading to the evaporation of 2.09 kg m−2 h−1, the energy efficiency of 87.6 % under one sun irradiation, and yielding 9.6 kg m−2 fresh water over 11 h outdoor operation. Moreover, the PSC also performs excellent salt rejection, and long-term stability at outdoor experiment. These results demonstrated high and stable solar evaporation performance could be achieved if turning heat losses into a way of extra energy extraction to further enhance the evaporation performance. This strategy appears to be a promising strategy for effective thermal energy management and practical application.

Optimization of Desalination Efficiency and Exploratory Applications of TiO2 Active Site Electrode Enhanced by Activated Carbon and Tween 80 in Capacitive Deionization Technology.

Capacitive deionization (CDI) is an emerging desalination technology for seawater desalination. The development of high-desalination and long-life electrode materials is a research focus in the global water treatment field. In this experiment, Tween T80 was used as a surface activator, and a modified electrode was prepared by facilitating the deposition of TiO2 active sites onto the surface of activated carbon through a sol-gel/hydrothermal two-step synthesis strategy. The morphology and specific surface area of the composite material were analyzed through scanning electron microscopy, specific surface area measurements, and contact angle tests. The results indicated that the sol-gel/hydrothermal two-step synthesis strategy played a crucial role in the homogeneous combination and performance enhancement of the composite material. Under constant voltage mode, when the working voltage was 1.2 V, the desalination capacity of this composite material in a NaCl solution with an initial conductivity of 3000 μS·cm-1 reached 23.8 mg·g-1 (26% higher than materials prepared by conventional sol-gel methods). After 150 cycles, the capacity retention rate was 78%, and the retention capacity was significant (87%). Overall, the results demonstrate the potential of the sol-gel/hydrothermal two-step synthesis strategy in preparing high-performance CDI electrode materials. The modified electrode prepared using this method offers enhanced desalination capacity and durability, making it a promising candidate for seawater desalination and other water treatment applications.

Integration of Renewable Energy Systems in Desalination

Desalination plants, which provide drinking water for residents, rely on electricity generated by fossil fuels. However, the excessive use of fossil fuels leads to their rapid depletion and has detrimental effects on the environment. Thus, the use of renewable energy resources in water desalination has gained popularity. The current research investigates the integration of renewable energy systems with seawater and brackish water desalination technologies. In this regard, three primary renewable energy sources—wind, solar, and geothermal—are selected. Accordingly, a thorough investigation of the related research published and the trend of evolutions between 2013 and 2023 is carried out for Reverse Osmosis (RO), Multistage flash (MSF), and Multi-effect distillation (MED)-based water desalination facilities coupled with renewable energy sources. In our investigation, we particularly focus on performance indicators, energy efficiency, economic factors, and environmental effects. Also, the associated challenges of these hybrid systems, such as technological complexity, unpredictability, and intermittency, are addressed. Prospects for the future that address these issues and the prospects of using renewable energy in water desalination technologies are also covered.

Pine-derived porous carbon for efficient capacitive deionization and the role of its hierarchical pore structure

Capacitive deionization (CDI) is a low-energy, eco-friendly, and economically viable technology for seawater desalination. In the desalination process of CDI, the pore structure characteristics of electrode materials play a crucial role. In this study, the carbon materials with a hierarchical pore structure were prepared through high-temperature carbonization and KOH activation using pine powder as raw material. When the pine-derived porous carbon (PPC) was used as an electrode material, it was found that its specific capacitance is remarkably consistent with the specific surface area of the mesopores. This discovery provides guidance for further optimization and regulation of biomass-derived carbon electrode materials. The desalination performance of the PPC electrode was studied in detail by CDI and flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI) devices. In NaCl solution with an initial concentration of 700 ppm, the equilibrium adsorption capacities in CDI and FCDI systems are 24.96 mg g−1 and 23.12 mg g−1, respectively. Particularly in FCDI tests, the average adsorption rate reaches 23.3 μg cm−2 min−1, and the desalination rate reaches 98.96 %. The PPC shows an excellent desalination performance, making it a promising efficient electrode material for electrochemical desalination.

Gyroid‐Structured Au Materials with 3D Interconnected Networks for Highly Efficient Heat Localization and Solar Vapor Generation

Effective solar steam generation is regarded as a prospective technology for seawater desalination and water purification, owing to its capability of solar light absorption and heat conversion. Numerous efforts have been dedicated to exploring photothermal materials with various delicate microstructures. However, investigations of the coupling effect of structure and component still need to be done. Herein, a superior solar steam generator of 3D bicontinuous interconnected gyroid‐structured Au materials (Au gyroid) by depositing Au nanoparticles onto C. rubi butterfly wings is reported. Au gyroid is proven to possess the evaporation rate and efficiency of 1.29 kg m−2 h−1 and 74.0%, under 1 sun irradiation. What is more, the evaporation rate and efficiency of lattice‐structured Au materials (Au lattice) as a comparison are 1.14 kg m−2 h−1 and 65.4%. The outstanding performance of Au gyroid is mainly ascribed to its 3D densely distributed hotspots and interconnected nanochannels, which are beneficial for strong broadband light absorption, sufficient water supply, as well as confinement effect for water heating. This work will provide insight into the future design and synthesis of novel plasmonic absorbers in photothermal conversion, photocatalysis, and photovoltaic devices.

Modeling of Integrated Hollow-Fiber Solar-Powered VMD Modules for Desalination for a Better Understanding and Management of Heat Flows.

The direct integration of membrane distillation and solar energy collection in a single module is a promising technology for autonomous seawater desalination in remote regions; however, the modeling and design of such modules are challenging because of the coupling of the radial and longitudinal heat and mass transfers. In a previous study, we provided as a first modeling approach a hollow fiber solar collector vacuum membrane distillation (VMD) module, considering a constant temperature at the shell side and a pure water feed. Here, a full model is developed to describe the coupled effects of the solar collector and a hollow fiber VMD module operating in an outside/in mode with saline water. The model considers all the main phenomena (membrane distillation, temperature and concentration polarization, absorption of solar radiation and energy balances over the solar collector, radial and longitudinal heat and mass transfer, seawater properties, and more than 30 variables). Applied to simulate the behavior of a semi-industrial-scale module, it allows the influence of solar radiation on the performance/limits of the integrated module to be discussed based on the radial and longitudinal profiles and heat flows. The model can be used to identify key points in the module design to better utilize solar radiation and manage heat flows.

Laminated chitosan/graphene nanoplatelets aerogel for 3D interfacial solar desalination with harnessing wind energy

Interfacial solar steam generation (ISSG) is a novel approach to freshwater generation. In practical utilization of new ISSG technology, achieving high evaporation rate is a crucial step. A three-dimensional (3D) solar absorber can increase the exposed surface area and enhance the escape of water molecules to the surrounding environment. However, vigorous evaporation induces to dry out the evaporator quickly, leading to damage its structure or decreased efficiency. In this context, a transversely laminated aerogel-based 3D evaporator is proposed. For this, chitosan/graphene nanoplatelets (CG) are incorporated to create laminated CG (LCG) aerogels having two different densities in a single structure. The results demonstrate that LCG aerogels exhibit rapid water-rise ability and excellent solar absorption characteristics. The laminated structure enhances mechanical strength and maintains balanced water and ion gradients sustainably, inducing a wettable and evaporation-enhanced condition. With these advantages, the evaporation rate of LCG aerogels with aspect ratio (AR) of 7 achieves 2.17 kg m−2h−1. In addition, evaporation experiments were conducted by applying precisely-controlled wind in a wind tunnel to the 3D evaporator. At a wind speed of 6 m s−1, the proposed evaporator achieves a maximum evaporation rate of 5.98 kg m−2h−1. Aerogel with a single density is better suited for situations where only solar radiation is present, while the LCG aerogel, which can utilize the features of two densities at the same time, is more effective in windy conditions. The evaporation efficiency is over 73 % for seawater and 20 wt% high-concentration NaCl solution, showing excellent durability with salt-resistance. The proposed aerogel-based evaporators would be utilized as a sustainable seawater desalination technology for environmentally friendly freshwater production.

Multiscale Synergetic Bandgap/Structure Engineering in Semiconductor Nanofibrous Aerogels for Enhanced Solar Evaporation.

Solar-driven interface evaporation has been identified as a sustainable seawater desalination and water purification technology. Nonetheless, the evaporation performance is still restricted by salt deposition and heat loss owing to weak solar spectrum absorption, tortuous channels, and limited plane area of conventional photothermal material. Herein, the semiconductor nanofibrous aerogels with a narrow bandgap, vertically aligned channels, and a conical architecture are constructed by the multiscale synergetic engineering strategy, encompassing bandgap engineering at the atomic scale and structure engineering at the nano-micro scale. As a proof-of-concept demonstration, a Co-doped MoS2 nanofibrous aerogel is synthesized, which exhibits the entire solar absorption, superhydrophilic, and excellent thermal insulation, achieving a net evaporation rate of 1.62 kg m-2 h-1 under 1 sun irradiation, as well as a synergistically efficient dye ion adsorption function. This work opens up new possibilities for the development of solar evaporators for practical applications in clean water production.

Design of High‐Performance Bilayer Solar Evaporator Using Graphene‐Coated Bamboo Prepared by Near‐Infrared Laser‐Induced Carbonization of Polystyrene

Solar seawater evaporation is a sustainable seawater desalination technology. However, how to convert low‐cost waste general plastics into highly efficient photothermal materials remains a challenge. By using the idea of “near‐infrared laser‐induced carbonization” at room temperature and in air atmosphere, polystyrene (PS) can be easily converted into graphene. Bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) catalyst is proven to efficiently convert laser energy into thermal energy and transmit it to the surrounding PS matrix, promoting carbonization. On this basis, by adjusting the catalyst content and the laser energy density per unit area, laser‐induced graphene (LIG) materials with high specific surface area, fast water transport, and high solar energy absorption efficiency can be obtained. Furthermore, the LIG materials are coated on the surface of natural bamboo with a capillary structure. This bilayer evaporation device has an evaporation rate of 1.51 kg m−2 h−1 and an energy conversion efficiency of 87.1% under irradiation of 1 sun. This work not only reveals the possibility of preparing high‐value‐added graphene materials from waste general‐purpose plastics, but also proves the application prospects of LIG materials in the field of solar seawater evaporation. This will provide a feasible approach for promoting the development of carbonization of waste general plastics.

Tailored PVDF membrane with coordinated interfacial nano/micro-structure for enhanced membrane distillation

Membrane distillation (MD) has attracted growing attention as a sustainable green membrane process technology for seawater and high saline water desalination, yet seriously challenged by the potential membrane wetting and fouling. Herein, a controllable approach to fabricate tailor-made MD membranes was proposed via combining in-situ growth of SiO2 nanoparticles with membrane surface activation and low surface energy substances. SiO2 nanoparticles distributed uniformly on the membrane surface and combined with the intrinsic microstructure of the membrane, a hybrid macro/micro-structure was constructed, further endowing the membrane with superhydrophobicity. The modified membranes exhibited excellent wetting-resistance properties and over 99.9 % salt rejection during vacuum membrane distillation (VMD) process. The surface wetting and anti-nucleation theory special for MD membranes was uncovered. This theory and VMD experiments synchronously indicated that the hybrid macro/micro structure with optimized nanoparticle size rendered the resulting fabricated membranes enhanced permeate flux and anti-fouling properties. The optimal L-F-3 membrane achieved high flux (16.08 kg/(m2·h)) under feed temperature of 60 °C with a water contact angle of 150° and LEP (liquid entry pressure) of 2.9 bar. Finally, the modified membranes possessed the enlarged effective evaporative surface and intensified the nucleation barrier as well as the interfacial nanoscale turbulent flow without potential scaling.

High-efficiency, thermal stable, and self-floating silver nanowires/Ti3C2Tx MXene/aramid nanofibers composite aerogel for photothermal water evaporation and antibacterial application

Interfacial solar steam generation shows great potential as a technology for seawater desalination. However, there are still considerable challenges in manufacturing photothermal evaporators with ultra-low thermal conductivity, mechanical robustness, and high-temperature resistance. Herein, we report Ag nanowires/Ti3C2Tx MXene/aramid nanofibers (Ag/Ti3C2Tx/ANFs) composite aerogel photothermal evaporators with internal three-dimensional (3D) micropores and a layered structure. The ANFs porous frame, with excellent mechanical properties and low thermal conductivity, allows abundant water transmission channels and reduces heat loss. Ti3C2Tx MXene and Ag NWs, known for their broadband absorption capability and antibacterial properties, enhance photothermal conversion efficiency. The Ag/Ti3C2Tx/ANFs composite aerogel distinguishes itself with a wide compression range (2 %∼60 %), remarkable light absorption capacity (96 %), and low thermal conductivity (0.49 W/mK), excellent thermal stability ensures the composite aerogel could withstand a wide temperature range from ∼500 °C to ∼196 °C. As expected, under one sun illumination, the Ag/Ti3C2Tx/ANFs composite aerogel presents a high evaporation rate of 2.21 kg m-2h−1 with an energy efficiency of 92 %. In addition, this evaporator composite aerogel exhibits outstanding and efficient salt tolerance, desalination, antibacterial properties, and heavy-metal ion wastewater purification capabilities. The unique evaporator structure presented here offers a new perspective for the structural design of next-generation, high-efficiency solar evaporators.

A solar-driven interfacial evaporator for seawater desalination based on mussel-inspired superhydrophobic composite coating

Superhydrophobic solar-driven interfacial evaporator is emerging as an energy-efficient technology for seawater desalination, which can be easily fabricated using robust photothermal superhydrophobic coating and substrate. The bifunctional coating is of great importance in providing stable and highly photothermal and superhydrophobic performance for a solar-driven interfacial evaporator. In this work, a mussel-inspired PANI@PDA@CNT/EP/FAS-17 composite was created to fabricate the bifunctional coating on the melamine sponge substrate for seawater desalination. The solar-vapor conversion efficiency of the resulting PANI@PDA@CNT/EP/FAS-17 solar-driven interfacial evaporator is 81.67 % and the evaporation rate is 1.3 kg∙m−2 h−1 under 1 Sun. Furthermore, the solar-vapor conversion efficiency and the evaporation rate are stable in a simulated seawater environment with a 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. The resulting superhydrophobic solar-driven interfacial evaporator is expected to have a wide application prospect in seawater desalination.

Development of Janus membranes with asymmetric wettability for desalination of impaired seawater by direct contact membrane distillation

Membrane distillation (MD) is an emerging technology for direct seawater desalination. The widely employed hydrophobic membranes are susceptible to pore wetting/ fouling in the presence of organic contaminants in seawater. Here, we demonstrate a facile method of preparing Janus membranes with hydrophilic/hydrophobic faces having excellent anti-fouling and anti-wetting properties. The hydrophobic substrate is a PVDF-co-HFP membrane incorporating fluoroalkylsilane (FAS) grafted hydrophobic MIL-53(Al)- a form of metal organic framework (h-MIL-53(Al)), and the hydrophilic coating is prepared by the direct deposition of polydopamine (PDA) (top layer). The optimum membrane exhibited a stable flux of 11 L/m2h and permeate conductivity ∼10 µS/cm for up to 60 h of seawater desalination. The anti-wetting property of the Janus membrane was demonstrated from the stable performance when challenging the membrane with impaired seawater containing low surface tension compounds such as sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) and propylene glycol (PG), and oil (hexadecane). The prepared membrane exhibited wetting resistance of 45 h and 18 h when feed was seawater containing 0.3 mM SDS and 3 wt% PG, respectively. The membrane displayed excellent resistance to fouling for desalination from SDS-stabilized hexadecane (500 ppm)/seawater feeds for up to 50 h (5 cycles). The membrane fabricated in this study holds the potential for seawater desalination.

High Freshwater Flux Solar Desalination via a 3D Plasmonic Evaporator with an Efficient Heat-Mass Evaporation Interface.

Passive solar desalination with interfacial heating is a promising technique to utilize solar energy to convert seawater into fresh water through evaporation and condensation. However, the current freshwater flux of solar desalination is much below industrial requirements (> 20 Lm-2 h-1 ). Herein, it is demonstrated that a 3D plasmonic evaporator with an efficient heat-mass evaporation interface (HM-EI) achieves a freshwater flux of 29.1 Lm-2 h-1 for 3.5 wt.% NaCl, which surpasses the previous solar evaporators and approaches the level of reverse osmosis (the highest installed capacity in industrial seawater desalination technology). The realization of high freshwater flux solar desalination comes from the efficient HM-EI comprising a grid-like plasmonic macrostructure for enhanced energy utilization in heat properties and a large-pore microstructure for accelerated ion transport in mass properties. This work provides a new direction for designing next-generation solar evaporators with high freshwater flux for industrial requirements.

Phase equilibrium conditions in carbon dioxide + cyclopentane double clathrate hydrate forming system coexisting with sodium chloride aqueous solution

The four-phase equilibrium conditions were measured in carbon dioxide + cyclopentane double clathrate hydrate forming systems coexisting with either sodium chloride aqueous solution or pure water as a technological basis for developing seawater desalination technology utilizing clathrate hydrate formation and decomposition. The equilibrated phases included sodium chloride aqueous solution or pure water, carbon dioxide + cyclopentane double clathrate hydrate, liquid cyclopentane, and carbon dioxide gas. The experiments were performed using the batch isochoric procedure. Three different concentrations of sodium chloride in the aqueous solution were tested: 0.035, 0.070, or 0.105 in mass fraction. Pressures ranged from 0.385 MPa to 2.488 MPa. The results were compared with the equilibrium conditions for carbon dioxide and cyclopentane simple clathrate hydrate forming systems. The comparison revealed that the double clathrate hydrate is more thermodynamically stable than the simple clathrate hydrates, under a given sodium chloride concentration in the aqueous solution.

High-efficient solar steam generation assisted removal of radioactive iodine ions from water by carbonized conjugated microporous polymer-based photothermal conversion materials

Solar steam generation has recently received much attention as a new green and environmentally responsible technology for seawater desalination or wastewater treatment. Hence, a novel and efficient strategy is proposed for removal of radioactive iodine ions from wastewater by SSG method using carbonized conjugated microporous polymers (CCMPs) as photothermal conversion materials. Because of the porous structure and strong light absorption of the CCMPs-based interfacial evaporator and the excellent thermal insulation of the expandable polyethylene sponge, CCMP-1 evaporator achieved a high photothermal conversion efficiency (95.39%) and stable water evaporation rate (1.5879 kg m−2 h−1) at one solar irradiation. In addition, the using of green solar energy as evaporation driving force could accelerate the transferring of iodine ions containing water through CMPs derived solar evaporator, which in turn improved the mass transfer. More importantly, the results of interfacial evaporation experiments on aqueous solutions containing iodine ions (0.2 mmol L−1) revealed that the concentration of iodine ions in the collected condensate was only 0.0027 mmol L−1, which decreased nearly three orders of magnitudes of initial concentration. Also, the iodine ions in water were almost completely enriched by the interfacial evaporator CCMP-1. In view of the fact of big challenge of removal of radioactive iodine ions from wastewater, remaining in current technologies, the findings of this study might provide a simple and efficient solution for treatment of radioactive pollutions contained in wastewater using green solar energy as deriving force via the SSG method.

A hierarchical salt-rejection strategy for sustainable and high-efficiency solar-driven desalination

Solar steam generation (SSG) is widely regarded as one of the most sustainable technologies for seawater desalination. However, salt fouling severely compromises the evaporation performance and lifetime of evaporators, limiting their practical applications. Herein, we propose a hierarchical salt-rejection (HSR) strategy to prevent salt precipitation during long-term evaporation while maintaining a rapid evaporation rate, even in high-salinity brine. The salt diffusion process is segmented into three steps—insulation, branching diffusion, and arterial transport—that significantly enhance the salt-resistance properties of the evaporator. Moreover, the HSR strategy overcomes the tradeoff between salt resistance and evaporation rate. Consequently, a high evaporation rate of 2.84 ​kg ​m−2 ​h−1, stable evaporation for 7 days cyclic tests in 20 ​wt% NaCl solution, and continuous operation for 170 ​h in natural seawater under 1 sun illumination were achieved. Compared with control evaporators, the HSR evaporator exhibited a >54% enhancement in total water evaporation mass during 24 ​h continuous evaporation in 20 ​wt% salt water. Furthermore, a water collection device equipped with the HSR evaporator realized a high water purification rate (1.1 ​kg ​m−2 ​h−1), highlighting its potential for agricultural applications.

Janus membrane with enhanced interfacial activation for solar evaporation

Low solar spectrum coverage, high evaporation enthalpy, and undesired salt deposition severely limited the solar-driven interfacial evaporation technology for further sewage purification and seawater desalination. To overcome these problems, we designed an amphiphilic Janus-structured polyaniline (PANI)/ZrC/cellulose acetate (CA) (J-PZCA) membrane. Firstly, the interfacial interaction between PANI and ZrC enhances the photoabsorption and photothermal conversion efficiency. Secondly, low thermal conductivity reduces the heat lost at the interface. Most importantly, ZrC could facilitate interfacial activation, which weakens the intermolecular forces of water by affecting the hydrogen bond. Under 1 solar irradiation (1 sun), the composite membrane exhibits a high evaporation rate of 1.31 kg m−2 h−1 and an excellent efficiency of 79.4%. In addition, the sewage purification and seawater desalination experiments reveal a remarkable purification capability of J-PZCA membrane. Especially for the treatment of high-concentration salt solution, it realizes a long-term stable evaporation performance due to the excellent salt deposition resistance. Therefore, the J-PZCA membrane constructed in this study provides a new perspective for the design of efficient interfacial evaporation devices.

Polydopamine/Fe3O4 modified wood-based evaporator for efficient and continuous water purification

Solar interfacial evaporation is a highly promising technology for seawater desalination and wastewater treatment, while the simple preparation processes and efficient production of clean water based on biomass interfacial evaporators still need further exploration and development. Here, we reported a wood-based evaporator (PFDW) loaded with Fe3O4 and polydopamine (PDA) after simple immersion treatment at room temperature for efficient and continuous water purification. The synergistic photothermal effect of PDA coating and Fe3O4 particles enables the evaporator to achieve high photothermal conversion efficiency in the longer wavelength range, while combined with the rapid water transport capacity endowed by the vertically aligned microporous structure of natural wood, it achieved an evaporation rate of 1.70 kg m-2h−1 and an energy efficiency of 98.0% under 1 kW m−2 irradiation. In addition, the prepared PFDW exhibited sustainable desalination stability and excellent removal efficiency for different water sources including organic dye wastewater, heavy metal effluent, oil–water emulsion and river water. This work provides a new avenue for efficient salt-tolerant portable evaporators.