Seasonal Migration Research Articles

An Examination of Identity and Colonialism in Tayeb Saleh's Season of Migration to the North through the Lens of Frantz Fanon's Black Skin, White Masks A Comparative Study

"In the exploration of post-colonial literature, Tayeb Saleh's 'Season of Migration to the North' and Frantz Fanon's 'Black Skin, White Masks' emerge as pivotal works that intricately dissect the complex interplay between identity and colonialism. Both authors delve into the psychological ramifications of colonial histories on individual identities, unraveling the multifaceted layers of the post-colonial experience. The themes of identity and colonialism in Tayeb Salih's "Season of Migration to the North" through the lens of Frantz Fanon's seminal work, "Black Skin, White Masks." By examining the experiences of the protagonist, Mustafa Sa'eed, who returns to Sudan after studying in England, the essay delves into the complex ways in which colonial encounters shape individual identity. Drawing on Fanon's theories, particularly the concepts of double consciousness and the psychological effects of colonization, the analysis sheds light on the psychological and cultural impact of the colonial experience on Sa'eed and other characters in the novel. This article investigates the idea of cultural hybridity and the ambivalence that arises from navigating multiple cultural influences. Moreover, it explores the gender dynamics present in both works, emphasizing the power imbalances and objectification of women within the colonial context. Through a comparative analysis, the article seeks to highlight the characters' struggles for authentic selfhood and the broader implications of their experiences in a post-colonial world. Ultimately, this exploration provides insights into the enduring relevance of these themes and the intricate interplay between identity and colonialism in literature. The present article seeks to examine the nuanced ways in which Saleh's narrative and Fanon's psychoanalytic insights intersect, offering a profound understanding of the profound impact of colonialism on the construction and negotiation of identity in a post-colonial world."
 Tayeb Salih's novel, Season of Migration to the North, delves into the intricate relationships that exist between colonialism and identity in post-colonial Sudan. In close resemblance to Frantz Fanon's groundbreaking work Black Skin, White Masks, the article explores the novel's complex concerns of identity building, cultural hybridity, and the psychological effects of colonialism in African literature. By their audacious writings, Fanon and Salih both transformed the postcolonial African landscape. Using a postcolonial perspective, this study investigates how the story's characters navigate their cultural heritage and sense of self in the years after colonial domination.

Palms behind the Smog: Strange Energies in Mawsim al-hijra ilā al-shimāl (Season of Migration to the North)

AbstractThis essay argues for the primacy of energy as an impetus in the writing of the Sudanese author al-Tayyib Salih. Taking his most famous novel, موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال (1966; Mawsim al-hijra ilā al-shimāl; Season of Migration to the North), as a case study, it explores the significance of climatic factors and of changes to energy regimes in the novel's plot, characterization, intertextuality, and postcolonial critique. Through the character of Mustafa Saʿid, it argues for a posthuman impulse in the novel, as Mustafa uncannily transforms from Faustian archetype to a fantastical, nonhuman force. It concludes by shifting to alternative forms of energy within Salih's writing, as the spiritual energy of the Sufi “unseen” meets the unheeding world of atoms, supercharged with new energies in the modern era.

Time-compensated sun compass in juvenile sprat (Sprattus sprattus) reveals the onset of migratory readiness.

Sprat (Sprattus sprattus) is one of the most commercially exploited fish species in the Baltic Sea and expresses a pronounced seasonal migration pattern. Spawning takes place, among other places, in the Kiel Bight and Kiel Fjord in early summer. Juvenile sprat leave the nursery areas in late summer/early autumn to move to their feeding and overwintering grounds. What kind of orientation mechanisms sprat use for migration is not known yet. This study shows that juvenile sprat can use a time-compensated sun compass, heading towards the northeast, in the direction of their proposed overwintering grounds in Bornholm Basin. The sprats tested at the end of August oriented themselves in the predicted direction, whereas the sprats tested at the beginning of August only showed a random orientation. For the first time, this demonstrates the onset of migratory readiness in juvenile sprat, indicating the preparation for starting their migration.

Precipitation explains Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) occupancy patterns in Northern Costa Rica

Introduction: The Wood Thrush is a migratory bird that has experienced dramatic declines in its populations in recent decades. This species overwinters in forest fragments with intermediate levels of habitat modification in Central America. However, more studies detailing the use of remnant forests through time are needed to elucidate the threats this species faces in the wintering grounds. Objective: To understand the effects of environmental and forest structure variables on the occupancy of Wood Thrush in Northern Costa Rica. Methods: The study area was the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG), located in Northern Costa Rica, in December 2016, and during the 2018-2019 migration season. We estimated Wood Thrush occupancy and detection probability in four locations of ACG (dry forest, cloud forest, and two locations in the wet forest) using single-season occupancy models. We also estimated Wood Thrush occupancy and probability of persistence in different months in three vegetation types (open area, secondary forest, and old-growth forest) in the wet forest of ACG using a multi-season occupancy model approach. Results: Wood Thrush occupancy was best described by precipitation in the four locations of the ACG; the probability of occupancy increased with precipitation. The average occupancy of Wood Thrushes varied with vegetation type: open area with shrubs and forest edge (0.69 ± 0.09), secondary forest (0.46 ± 0.1), and old-growth forest (0.61 ± 0.1). Wood Thrush probability of persistence responded partially to changes in precipitation, with an unexpected increase in persistence when the rainfall continued decreasing in the season. Conclusion: Wood Thrush occupancy was best predicted by changes in precipitation considering a larger spatial scale. Its probability of persistence partially varied with precipitation. An increase in persistence closer to Spring migration might be explained by the start of the breeding season of resident birds, potentially reducing territorial conflicts and conserving energy before migration. The long-term protection of wet forests in Northern Costa Rica is of paramount importance for the conservation of Wood Thrushes in their wintering grounds.

Characteristics of bird niches in a small Indian city: effect of migratory status, season, and environment variables

Abstract Small tropical and sub-tropical cities frequently retain considerable and diverse green spaces. Such cities can house diverse bird assemblages but these species face conditions varying both spatially (habitats and human activity spread out unequally) and temporally (influx of migratory birds, seasonally varying weather). How do urban birds cope with such conditions? More specifically, do migratory species vary from resident ones in their requirements, and how do resident species deal with variations in conditions? To address these questions, we used an ordination technique, the Outlying Mean Index (OMI), to estimate niche characteristics (OMI, tolerance, and residual tolerance) of 74 resident and migratory bird species in the tourism-dominated Udaipur city, India, across three seasons during 2019–20 using 16 variables that incorporated human presence, land use and trees. OMIs indicated high residual tolerance suggesting that measured variables were inadequate to fully characterize urban bird niches. Contrary to predictions, birds grouped by feeding guilds had similar niche metrics both within and across seasons. Also contrary to predictions, migratory species had more generalized niches relative to resident species. Bird niches were most influenced by trees, effects due to other natural habitats (open areas, scrublands, wetlands) were weaker, and human-related variables (cattle, built-up area, people, vehicles) had the weakest influence. Seasonal niche characteristics computed for 41 resident species suggested that individual species coped with changing conditions differently. Conservation of bird assemblages in small cities will require preservation of city-wide habitat diversity alongside spatially restricting urbanization.

Avifaunal assemblage patterns in Bharathapuzha River Basin, Kerala, India

Bharathapuzha, the second largest west-flowing river in the Western Ghats, originates from the northern and southern parts of the Palghat gap and debouches into the Arabian Sea at Ponnani. This river is exposed to high levels of anthropogenic pressures. This study looks into avifaunal assemblage patterns and the factors influencing the structure of bird communities in different ecological zones of the Bharathapuzha River Basin. The syntropic birds and flocking birds contribute variations in the bird community assemblage in the river basin. For the water-dependent and water-associated birds, mudflats, water flow, riverside vegetation, and distance from the forest were found to be the influencing factors in the migratory season. The study also emphasized the importance of protecting these river-associated habitats for the conservation of birds.

Survival implications of diversion entrainment for out‐migrating juvenile Chinook Salmon and steelhead

AbstractObjectiveEfforts to ameliorate the negative effects of diversion dams on aquatic species of concern are important in rivers where water withdrawal supports agricultural economies, and they are likely to become increasingly important with impending climate change. A multi‐year study was conducted to evaluate the survival consequences of diversion dam passage for juvenile Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha and steelhead O. mykiss in the highly managed Yakima River, Washington. Canal entrainment and passage were evaluated at four diversion dams in the lower Yakima River where seaward‐migrating juvenile salmon and steelhead either pass dams via spill bays or enter canals with downstream fish‐screening facilities designed to collect entrained fish and return them to the main‐stem river.MethodsWe used acoustic telemetry to monitor the downstream migration behavior of 4403 juvenile Chinook Salmon and steelhead during 2018–2021.ResultPercent entrainment into canals was substantial (6–59%) at three of the four diversion dams studied, and entrainment probability was positively associated with the proportion of streamflow diverted into canals. Survival probability estimates for groups of tagged fish that were entrained into canals were lower than survival probability estimates for tagged fish that passed through spill bays on the dams. Absolute differences in survival probabilities between routes ranged from 0.099 to 0.369, demonstrating that canal entrainment reduced the survival of outmigrating juvenile Chinook Salmon and steelhead. We also found that entrainment resulted in migration delays, which could further affect survival because fish are increasingly exposed to predation and decreased water quality as water temperature increases throughout the migration season.ConclusionCanal entrainment resulted in increased mortality and travel time through the study area, highlighting the need to limit the entrainment of juvenile salmon and steelhead at diversion dams in rivers where salmon recovery is important.

Heavy migration traffic and bad weather are a dangerous combination: Bird collisions in New York City

Abstract Bird–building collisions account for 365–988 million bird fatalities every year in the United States alone. Understanding conditions that heighten collision risk is critical to developing effective strategies for reducing this source of anthropogenic bird mortality. Meteorological factors and regional migration traffic may increase collision rates but also may be difficult to disentangle from other effects. We used 5 years of bird collision counts in New York City to examine the influence of nocturnal weather conditions and bird migration traffic rates on collisions with buildings during spring and fall. We found that seasonally unfavourable winds and conditions that impede visibility are important factors that increase the rates of bird–building collisions during both seasons. Specifically, northerly and westerly winds and low visibility in the spring and southerly and westerly winds and low cloud ceiling height in the fall are associated with higher collision risks. Generally, these weather variables associated most strongly with increased collisions when nocturnal bird migration traffic was high, with the exception of low visibility in spring, which was predicted to triple collision rates compared to high visibility, independent of bird migration traffic. Synthesis and applications: Although legislation to turn off unnecessary nocturnal lighting for the entirety of the migration seasons may be an ultimate goal, a proximate goal invaluable for reducing collisions will be predicting which nights will be of highest risk and using this information to determine when mitigation efforts could be most effective.

Seasonal migration and the evolution of an inverse latitudinal diversity gradient in shorebirds

AbstractAimWhile the evolution of seasonal migration and its association with biogeography have been the subject of numerous studies, its influence on species diversification has rarely been examined. The aim of this study is to explain the atypical latitudinal diversity gradient in shorebirds: did seasonal migration influence diversification and did the gradient evolve from higher in situ diversification or repeated transitions?LocationGlobal.Time PeriodPalaeogene to present.Major Taxa StudiedOrder Charadriiformes (shorebirds and allies). Shorebirds include the species with the longest annual migrations in birds and exhibit an inverse latitudinal diversity gradient, with more species breeding toward higher latitudes.MethodsWe first assessed the temporal and geographical framework of the evolution of migration using a newly reconstructed time‐calibrated phylogeny, and using the fossil record as a complementary source of information. We then used hidden state speciation and extinction models to test whether diversification and thus the latitudinal diversity gradient has been shaped by migratory behaviour or species latitudinal distribution.ResultsWe found that the ancestor of Charadriiformes was likely a tropical year‐round resident and that the current clade's distribution of diversity was not shaped by dispersal events out of the tropics but rather by higher in situ diversification in temperate biomes compared to tropical biomes. Seasonal migration did not affect diversification rate in our models. However, the evolution of seasonal migration seems to be a prerequisite to breed in temperate biomes, indirectly enabling the higher diversification observed in temperate biomes.Main ConclusionsOur results bring original insights into how the migratory behaviour acted as a precursor in the diversification and biogeographical history of a large bird clade, ultimately shaping an atypical latitudinal diversity gradient.

Synchrony of Bird Migration with Global Dispersal of Avian Influenza Reveals Exposed Bird Orders

Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) A H5, particularly clade 2.3.4.4, has caused worldwide outbreaks in domestic poultry, occasional spillover to humans, and increasing deaths of diverse species of wild birds since 2014. Wild bird migration is currently acknowledged as an important ecological process contributing to the global dispersal of HPAIV H5. However, this mechanism has not been quantified using bird movement data from different species, and the timing and location of exposure of different species is unclear. We sought to explore these questions through phylodynamic analyses based on empirical data of bird movement tracking and virus genome sequences of clade 2.3.4.4 and 2.3.2.1. First, we demonstrate that seasonal bird migration can explain salient features of the global dispersal of clade 2.3.4.4. Second, we detect synchrony between the seasonality of bird annual cycle phases and virus lineage movements. We reveal the differing exposed bird orders at geographical origins and destinations of HPAIV H5 clade 2.3.4.4 lineage movements, including relatively under-discussed orders. Our study provides a phylodynamic framework that links the bird movement ecology and genomic epidemiology of avian influenza; it highlights the importance of integrating bird behavior and life history in avian influenza studies.

Mesoscale Convective Systems and Extreme Precipitation on the West African Coast Linked to Ocean–Atmosphere Conditions during the Monsoon Period in the Gulf of Guinea

This study investigates the importance of convective systems for extreme rainfall along the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea (GG) and their relationship with atmospheric and oceanic conditions. Convective system data (MCSs), daily precipitation, sea surface temperature (SST) and moisture flux anomalies from June to September 2007–2016 are used. The results show that 2/3 of MCSs crossing Abidjan are produced in June, which is the core of the major rainy season. Likewise, 2/3 of MCSs originate from continental areas, while 1/3 come from the ocean. Oceanic MCSs are mostly initiated close to the coast, which also corresponds to the Marine Heat Waves region. Continental MCSs are mostly initiated inland. The results also highlight the moisture flux contribution of three zones which have an impact on the onset and the sustaining of MCSs: (i) the seasonal migration of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), (ii) the GG across the northern coastline, and finally (iii) the continent. These contributions of moisture fluxes coincide with oceanic warming off Northeast Brazil and the northern coast of the GG both two days before and the day of extreme rainfall events. The ocean contributes to moisten the atmosphere, and therefore to supply and sustain the MCSs during their lifecycle.

Seasonal migration alters energetic trade-off optimization and shapes life history.

Trade-offs between current and future reproduction manifest as a set of co-varying life history and metabolic traits, collectively referred to as 'pace of life' (POL). Seasonal migration modulates environmental dynamics and putatively affects POL, however, the mechanisms by which migratory behaviour shapes POL remain unclear. We explored how migratory behaviour interacts with environmental and metabolic dynamics to shape POL. Using an individual-based model of movement and metabolism, we compared fitness-optimized trade-offs among migration strategies. We found annual experienced seasonality modulated by migratory movements and distance between end-points primarily drove POL differentiation through developmental and migration phenology trade-offs. Similarly, our analysis of empirically estimated metabolic data from 265 bird species suggested seasonal niche tracking and migration distance interact to drive POL. We show multiple viable life-history strategies are conducive to a migratory lifestyle. Overall, our findings suggest metabolism mediates complex interactions between behaviour, environment and life history.

World literature and transformative learning

This study investigates how Tayeb Salih’s Season of Migration to the North (2006) can be read and taught as an example of world literature in accordance with the transformative and culturally empowering ambitions of the Swedish upper secondary school curriculum. A total of 18 third-year students in the upper secondary science programme read the novel and recorded their reading experiences in journals. These journals have been thematically analysed, and the results show that the students’ processes of deconstructing and reconstructing the finalised reading, using literary concepts, help forward estrangement effects, which produce critical readings. As the students read for the plot and closed in on the end, their text-centred understandings of the novel were heightened, and by actively using subject-specific terminology (i.e. stylistic devices and modes of reading concepts), they strengthened the sense-making of their relations to the world as mediated through the text. Frames of reference about historical and current Sudan support the students in allowing the novel to become a merging point, at which their cultural horizons are nuanced through the juxtaposing of different perspectives. The students’ meta-reflexive readings allow for experiencing culture on the move as part of their transformative learning.

Rat composition and population in mature oil palm adjacent to paddy field

Rat is one of the main pests in an oil palm plantation, impacted at various types and stages of oil palm growth. Ungkaya estate has a historical & endemic infestation of rats, especially in several fields adjacent to paddy fields. This study aimed to find out the seasonal migration of rats from paddy fields to oil palm fields in Ungkaya Estate. Five plots were used for trapping, identifying rat species, monitoring of rat population, rat damage intensity, and rat habitat preference at each stage of the paddy season. Trapped rats were identified as Rattus tiomanicus (56.91%), Rattus argentiventer (36.17%), and Rattus tanezumi (6.91%). The intensity of rat damage to the palm was high during the vegetative phase of paddy season and the full moon phase. The regression analysis results showed that the number of trapped rats has a positive relationship to rat damage intensity for the vegetative and harvesting stage at full moon. The number of trapped R. argentiventer at vegetative stage was higher than the generative & harvesting phase of the paddy season. Moreover, there were rat footprints observed on the riverside leading to the oil palm field. The results of all observation parameters concluded that there was seasonal migration of rats between the oil palm fields and the paddy fields in Ungkaya estate. The information is pivotal in drawing up suitable mitigation measures to control and minimize rat damage to the oil palm.

Seasonal Migration Characteristics of Pollutants in Daya Bay: A Case Study in 2015 Based on Observations

Seasonal Migration Characteristics of Pollutants in Daya Bay: A Case Study in 2015 Based on Observations

Influence of Oceanographic Parameters on The Results of The Catch of Squid (Loligo sp.) in The Java Sea (WPP-RI 712)

Information on oceanographic conditions is an important aspect to pay attention to because it is closely related to the existence of abundant squid resources. Most types of squid make seasonal migrations in response to changes in temperature. Squids will look for a place to attach their eggs under certain oceanographic conditions, such as the right salinity and water depth. Data collection was carried out primarily in the field using a 5 in 1 salinometer and secondarily using the AQUA MODIS satellite. Sea surface temperatures observed from the end of March to the beginning of May experienced a slow increase in temperature from day to day. Regarding water salinity, the data obtained is that the further out to sea, the greater the salinity tends to be. In chlorophyll a, there was a significant increase in March with the highest distribution. The influence of the measured oceanographic parameters on the number of squid catches, after chlorophyll-a cross-correlation was carried out, was 36.5% or a fairly strong correlation and the other 63.5% was estimated to influence other factors in the form of light, bulla, water depth, and current strength, as well as the crew's skills in operating fishing gear.

An Image of the Village from the Local to the Global in the Novel (Season of Migration to the North) by Al-Tayeb Salih: A Literary Critical Study

Objectives:This highlights on the symbolism of the image of the village in the novel (Season of Migration to the North) by Tayeb Salih, and the reasons that transferred it from the local to the global.
 Methods: The study plan depend on the descriptive-critical-analytical approach based on observation and induction, and it came in an introduction, three chapters and a conclusion.
 Results: of the study concluded that Al-Tayeb Salih’s connection to his country, and his experience of emigration and his vast culture, enriched and deepened his experience; He produced a mature and purposeful narrative work that excited readers and specialists locally and glob. And the image of the village in the novel is composed of a local image of its social, political, cultural and religious nature, and a Western image on the lips of its children. And that the reasons that brought the image of the village in the novel (Season of Migration to the North) to globalism are: the intellectual and artistic side, place and time, migrations, translation and translators, literary and critical studies, the Internet. And this confirms that globalism stems from locality.

Sex and size shape the ontogeny of partial migration.

The arrival-time hypothesis of partial seasonal migration proposes that over-winter residence is driven by reproductive benefits of early presence on the breeding grounds. Thus, it predicts increased occurrence of residence at reproductive age. In contrast, the body size hypothesis proposes age-independent benefits of residence for large individuals, who should exhibit greater winter tolerance. Despite different expectations in age patterns for the two hypotheses in long-lived partially migrant species, there is little empirical work investigating the ontogeny of migratory phenotypic expression, that is the expression of residence or migration. We investigated the influence of age, sex and body size on migratory phenotype throughout ontogeny (from first year to early adulthood) in a long-lived partially migrant species, the red kite Milvus milvus. We GPS-tracked 311 individuals tagged as juveniles and 70 individuals tagged as adults over multiple years, yielding 881 observed annual cycles. From this data, we estimated age-dependent probabilities of the transition to residence and of survival in migrants and residents using a Bayesian multistate capture-recapture model, as well as the probability of resuming migration once resident. We then calculated the resulting proportion of residents per age class. In both sexes, almost all juveniles migrated in their first winter, after which the probability of becoming resident gradually increased with age class to approximately 0.3 in adults (>3 calendar years). A size effect in third calendar year females suggests that large females adopt residence earlier in life than small females. The transition from residence back to migration only occurred with a probability of 0.15 across all resident individuals. In addition, survival was notably reduced in adult male migrants compared to adult male residents. These results are largely consistent with the arrival-time and body size hypotheses, simultaneously. Our results reveal a plastic, yet primarily directional within-individual change in migratory phenotype towards more residence with increasing age, varying between sexes and between individuals of different size. This study highlights that different individual characteristics can jointly shape the ontogeny of migratory behaviour and result in complex within-population patterns and persistence of migratory phenotypes.

Pop-up satellite archival tags and an individual-based model provide new insights on behavioural thermoregulation in migrating ovigerous American lobster

Ovigerous American lobsters, Homarus americanus, in the Bay of Fundy undertake seasonal migrations, which are thought to improve the thermal conditions experienced by their embryos. However, the complete thermal and bathymetric history of such females has never been characterized. To this end, we deployed pop-up satellite archival tags on two ovigerous females (160 mm carapace length) in the Bay of Fundy between September 2013 and July 2014. Tagged lobsters traveled from the release location (Grand Manan, New Brunswick) to points near Beaver Harbour, New Brunswick, and Port George, Nova Scotia, representing linear displacements of 33 and 123 km, respectively. Recorded depth and temperature for both lobsters confirm shallow-to-deep migrations in the fall and deep-to-shallow migrations in the spring. The high-resolution, nearly continuous data generated by the satellite tags indicated that local changes in temperature may be the proximate trigger for fall movements, but do not cue movements in spring. We then developed an individual-based model to investigate the mechanisms and thermal outcomes of seasonal migrations, where lobster movements were allowed to vary according to bottom temperature, an individual's level of preference for warmer waters and its scope for movement. This modeling work, combined with the fine-scale thermal and depth history of our tagged lobsters, indicated that the movements our lobster undertook clearly increased, but did not maximize, the temperature their embryos experienced, relative to lobsters moving randomly or not at all. The novel data and modeling approach used in this study shed new light on the nature, trigger and function of seasonal migrations displayed by American lobsters in the Bay of Fundy.

Going with the floe: Sea-ice movement affects distance and destination during Adélie penguin winter movements.

Seasonal migration, driven by shifts in annual climate cycles and resources, is a key part of the life history and ecology of species across taxonomic groups. By influencing the amount of energy needed to move, external forces such as wind and ocean currents are often key drivers of migratory pathways exposing individuals to varying resources, environmental conditions, and competition pressures impacting individual fitness and population dynamics. Although wildlife movements in connection with wind and ocean currents are relatively well understood, movements within sea-ice fields have been much less studied, despite sea ice being an integral part of polar ecology. Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) in the southern Ross Sea, Antarctica, currently exist at the southernmost edge of their range and undergo the longest (~12,000 km) winter migration known for the species. Within and north of the Ross Sea, the Ross Gyre drives ocean circulation and the large-scale movement of sea ice. We used remotely sensed sea-ice movement data together with geolocation-based penguin movement data to test the hypothesis that penguins use gyre-driven sea-ice movement to aid their migration. We found that penguins traveled greater distances when their movement vectors were aligned with those of sea ice (i.e., ice support) and the amount of ice support received depended on which route a penguin took. We also found that birds that took an eastern route traveled significantly further north in two of the 3 years we examined, coinciding with higher velocities of sea ice in those years. We compare our findings to patterns observed in migrating species that utilize air or water currents for their travel and with other studies showing the importance of ocean/sea-ice circulation patterns to wildlife movement and life history patterns within the Ross Sea. Changes in sea ice may have consequences not only for energy expenditure but, by altering migration and movement pathways, to the ecological interactions that exist in this region.