Seasonal Area Research Articles

Successional and seasonal changes of leaf beetles and their indicator value in a fragmented low thorn forest of northeastern Mexico (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae).

Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera) constitute a highly diverse family of phytophagous insects with high ecological relevance, due to their host plant specificity and their close association to vegetation variables. Therefore, secondary succession and seasonal changes after loss of vegetal cover will have a significant influence on their community patterns. Accordingly, responses of leaf beetles to such environmental heterogeneity make them a suitable taxon for monitoring disturbance, which is more important for endangered habitats such as the low thorn forests (LTF) in northeastern Mexico. We conducted a study in a LTF fragment in order to assess the effects of secondary succession and seasonality on leaf beetle communities, as well as to quantify the importance of Chrysomelidae as an indicator taxon. Landsat scenes were used for delimiting a successional gradient, in which four succession categories were selected: four years, 17 years, and 31 years since loss of vegetal cover, and conserved areas. Eight plots of 100 m2 were randomly delimited in each category; plots were sampled monthly, using an entomological sweep net, from May 2016 to April 2017. In total, 384 samples were collected by the end of study, from which 6978 specimens, six subfamilies, 57 genera, and 85 species were obtained. Species richness was higher in early succession areas. Abundance declined significantly from early successional to conserved areas, but the conserved areas had the higher diversity. Furthermore, differences in abundance were significant between rainy and dry seasons in areas of four, 17, and 31 years of succession, but not in conserved areas; also, all categories had a similar abundance during the dry season. Intermediate (17 and 31 years) and conserved areas differed in the season of higher diversity. Regarding inventory completeness, it was close to or above 70 % for all comparisons, although it was very low for the 17-year category during the rainy season. Faunistic similarity was higher between intermediate categories. A total of 24 species had a significant indicator value. Effects of succession time and seasonality on leaf beetle communities are here quantified for first time in LTF forests. Influences of environmental heterogeneity and intermediate disturbance are discussed as main drivers of the results obtained. Several leaf beetle species are proposed that could be useful for monitoring succession time and secondary LTF vegetation in northeastern Mexico. However, studies must be replicated at other regions, in order to obtain a better characterization of disturbance influence on leaf beetles.

Modeling the Spatial and Seasonal Variations of Groundwater Head in an Urbanized Area under Low Impact Development

Increasing impervious land cover has great impacts on groundwater regimes in urbanized areas. Low impact development (LID) is generally regarded as a sustainable solution for groundwater conservation. However, the effects of LID on the spatial-temporal distribution of groundwater are not yet fully understood. In this case study, a coupled Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) and Finite Element Subsurface FLOW system (FEFLOW) model was used to simulate surface and groundwater flow in an urbanized area in Shenzhen, China. After verification, the model was used to analyze the spatial-seasonal variations of groundwater head and hydrological processes under different LID scenarios. The results indicate that if the runoff from 7.5% and 15% of impervious area is treated by LID facilities, the annual surface runoff decreases by 5% and 9%, respectively, and the spatial average groundwater head relative to sea level pressure increases by 0.9 m and 1.7 m in the study area, respectively. The rise in groundwater head generally decreases from the recharge zones to the discharge zones surrounded by the streams and coastal waters. However, the groundwater head change is determined not only by the location in the catchment, but also by the hydraulic conductivity of underlying aquifer and LID infiltration intensity. Moreover, LID significantly enhances groundwater recharge and aquifer storage in the wet seasons; in turn it increases aquifer release and groundwater discharge in the dry seasons. However, LID has the potential to increase the risk of groundwater flooding during wet seasons in areas with poor aquifer drainage capacity and shallow groundwater depth. The findings from this study provide the basis for further assessing the benefit and risk of LID infiltration for groundwater supplementation in the urbanized areas.

Waterbird flight initiation distances at Barberspan Bird Sanctuary, South Africa

With tourism in South Africa expanding, the number of avitourists increases. The increase in infrastructure and human activities in protected areas, if not managed properly, can be harmful to birds. Flight initiation distances (FID) can be used as a method to monitor habituation to disturbances. This study was performed at the Barberspan Bird Sanctuary, North West province, South Africa, to determine the levels of habituation among waterbirds and make appropriate recommendations regarding the management of the reserve. Our results indicated a 0.29 m increase in FID per gram reported mean biomass. Compared with conspecific or congeneric birds from Australia, Europe and North America, South African birds have relatively larger FIDs to human disturbance, which may indicate lower habituation. We also calculated buffer zones based on the maximum FID of the waterbirds for three mass groups. These buffer zones were then matched with the spatial distribution of the birds along the shoreline. We recommend that the mean FID for the blacksmith lapwing, Vanellus armatus (62 m), can be used as approach distance outside the breeding season in areas where the birds are sparsely distributed and 104 m during the breeding season in breeding areas. A large buffer of 200 m is suggested for areas with threatened, sensitive and skittish species. However, it is still preferable for avitourists to use the bird hides along the shores.Conservation implications: This study provides information for conservation management at Barberspan, based on typical birder activity. Smaller birds would need smaller buffer zones, while larger birds need much greater distances from observers to minimise disturbance. Similar studies can be applied elsewhere.

Comparing germination stimuli of two alien invasive species and a native analogue: Towards sustainable management of invasives

Invasive alien plants that have seeds with innate dormancy, and thus large, persistent soil-stored seed banks, are particularly difficult to manage. Dormant seeds typically require specific stimuli as cues for germination, resulting in mass recruitment. Sound understanding of germination stimuli may provide options to aid the management of invasives. We investigated the response of two invasive trees, Acacia mearnsii and A. melanoxylon, and an indigenous ecological analogue, Virgilia divaricata, to different germination stimuli (chipped (manually), hot water exposure, dry heat pulse, smoke, and no treatment) at two temperature regimes (winter ~12°C and summer ~20°C) to explore how their germination requirements may be used to favour V. divaricata in areas cleared of the invasives. Chipped and hot water exposure resulted in the highest germination in all three species. Virgilia divaricata responded marginally better than the invasives to the dry heat pulse, particularly at 20°C. However, the three species mostly responded comparably to the stimulus–temperature combinations, suggesting that manipulation of stimuli is not a feasible option for management of the invasives at a large scale. In the absence of any stimulus (~akin to conditions associated with aboveground clearing of alien vegetation cover), germination was poorer in V. divaricata than in the invasive species especially at 20°C, providing motivation for focusing Acacia management operations in cooler seasons in areas where V. divaricata seed banks occur. Another option is to sow V. divaricata seeds that have been chipped or exposed to hot water in areas cleared of the invasives of which the seeds would not have received stimuli.

Impacts of Thermal Time on Land Surface Phenology in Urban Areas

Urban areas alter local atmospheric conditions by modifying surface albedo and consequently the surface radiation and energy balances, releasing waste heat from anthropogenic uses, and increasing atmospheric aerosols, all of which combine to increase temperatures in cities, especially overnight, compared with surrounding rural areas, resulting in a phenomenon called the “urban heat island” effect. Recent rapid urbanization of the planet has generated calls for remote sensing research related to the impacts of urban areas and urbanization on the natural environment. Spatially extensive, high spatial resolution data products are needed to capture phenological patterns in regions with heterogeneous land cover and external drivers such as cities, which are comprised of a mixture of land cover/land uses and experience microclimatic influences. Here we use the 30 m normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) product from the Web-Enabled Landsat Data (WELD) project to analyze the impacts of urban areas and their surface heat islands on the seasonal development of the vegetated land surface along an urban–rural gradient for 19 cities located in the Upper Midwest of the United States. We fit NDVI observations from 2003–2012 as a quadratic function of thermal time as accumulated growing degree-days (AGDD) calculated from the Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 1 km land surface temperature product to model decadal land surface phenology metrics at 30 m spatial resolution. In general, duration of growing season (measured in AGDD) in green core areas is equivalent to duration of growing season in urban extent areas, but significantly longer than duration of growing season in areas outside of the urban extent. We found an exponential relationship in the difference of duration of growing season between urban and surrounding rural areas as a function of distance from urban core areas for perennial vegetation, with an average magnitude of 669 AGDD (base 0 °C) and the influence of urban areas extending greater than 11 km from urban core areas. At the regional scale, relative change in duration of growing season does not appear to be significantly related to total area of urban extent, population, or latitude. The distance and magnitude that urban areas exert influence on vegetation in and near cities is relatively uniform.

Comparison of aerosol characteristics during haze periods over two urban agglomerations in China using CALIPSO observations

Using CALIPSO (cloud-aerosol lidar and infrared pathfinder satellite observation) vertical observation data during haze periods from January 2007 to December 2008, we analyzed differences in aerosol characteristics near the surface, as well as in the middle troposphere between the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan region (Area A) and the Yangtze River Delta region (Area B) in China. One significant difference was that haze pollution in Area A was related to local and non-local aerosols, while in Area B it was related to local anthropogenic sources. In all seasons apart from autumn, aerosol pollution in Area A was more severe than in Area B, both near the surface and at higher altitudes. In Area A, non-spherical aerosols were dominant from 0 to 4km in spring, summer, and winter; while in autumn, there were considerably high numbers of non-spherical aerosols below 0.5km, and near-spherical aerosols from 0.5 to 4km. In Area B, both near-spherical and non-spherical aerosols were common in all seasons. Moreover, aerosols with attenuated color ratios of 0–0.2 were more common in all seasons in Area A than in Area B, indicating that fine particle pollution in Area A was more serious than in Area B. Finally, relatively large aerosols linked to gravity settling appeared more frequently near the surface in Area A than in Area B.

Metalworking at Megiddo during the Late Bronze and Iron Ages

Metalworking at Megiddo during the Late Bronze and Iron Ages

Does season affect fire behaviour in the Cerrado?

Fire has played an important role in the plant dynamics and diversity of the Cerrado for millions of years. We evaluated fire behaviour in different fire seasons in areas of an open savanna, providing information for fire management plans. It has been hypothesised that early fires (May – end of the rainy season) will be less intense than those conducted in the middle and end of the dry season (July and October) owing to the amount of dead biomass accumulated. Therefore, we compared fire behaviour in early, mid- and late dry season, evaluating the main fire and environmental variables. Fire intensity was mainly influenced by the combination of dead fuel percentage and fuel load. Even though this combination was the best model to explain fire intensity variability, fire parameters (including fire intensity) did not differ between fire seasons. Flame height was best explained by dead fuel percentage + fuel moisture content, dead fuel percentage + fuel load and also by dead fuel percentage. Our study showed that, in areas with fire exclusion for 2 years, fire season did not influence fire parameters and fire behaviour and the main factors influencing fire intensity were the proportion of dead biomass and total fuel load.

Spatiotemporal patterns of water table fluctuations and evapotranspiration induced by riparian vegetation in a semiarid area

AbstractGroundwater evapotranspiration (ETg) links various ecohydrological processes and is an important component in regional water budgets. In this study, an extensive monitoring network was established in a semiarid riparian area to investigate various controls on the spatiotemporal pattern of water table fluctuations (WTFs) and ETg induced by riparian vegetation. Along a vegetation gradient (∼1200 m), diurnal WTFs were observed during a growing season in areas covered by woody species (Populus sect. Aigeiros and Juniperus virginiana) and wet slough vegetation (Panicum virgatum and Bromus inermis) with deeper root systems; whereas, no diurnal WTFs were found in the middle section with shallower‐rooted grasses (Poa pratensis and Carex sp.). The occurrence of diurnal WTFs was related to temperature‐controlled plant phenology at seasonal scales and to radiation at subdaily scales. Daily ETg in the mid‐growing season was calculated using the White method. The results revealed that depth to water table (DTWT) was the dominant control on ETg, followed by potential evapotranspiration (ETp). By combining the effects of DTWT and ETp, it was found that at shallower depths, ETg was more responsive to changes in ETp, due to the closer linkage of land surface processes with shallower groundwater. Finally, exponential relationships between ETg/ETp and DTWT were obtained at the study site, although those relationships varied considerably across the sites. This study demonstrates the complex interactions of WTFs and ETg with surrounding environmental variables and provides further insight into modeling ETg over different time scales and riparian vegetation.

Alternaria spores in the air across Europe: abundance, seasonality and relationships with climate, meteorology and local environment

We explored the temporal and spatial variations in airborne Alternaria spore quantitative and phenological features in Europe using 23 sites with annual time series between 3 and 15 years. The study covers seven countries and four of the main biogeographical regions in Europe. The observations were obtained with Hirst-type spore traps providing time series with daily records. Site locations extend from Spain in the south to Denmark in the north and from England in the West to Poland in the East. The study is therefore the largest assessment ever carried out for Europe concerning Alternaria. Aerobiological data were investigated for temporal and spatial patterns in their start and peak season dates and their spore indices. Moreover, the effects of climate were checked using meteorological data for the same period, using a crop growth model. We found that local climate, vegetation patterns and management of landscape are governing parameters for the overall spore concentration, while the annual variations caused by weather are of secondary importance but should not be neglected. The start of the Alternaria spore season varies by several months in Europe, but the peak of the season is more synchronised in central-northern Europe in the middle of the summer, while many southern sites have peak dates either earlier or later than northern Europe. The use of a crop growth model to explain the start and peak of season suggests that such methods could be useful to describe Alternaria seasonality in areas with no available observations.

Comparative Performance of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Under Subsistence Farming Using Drip and Watering Can Methods of Irrigation

Application of water to crops during the dry season in areas of scare water supply is very important to meet the food demand of the ever-increasing population globally. Thus, modified irrigation technique that poor resource farmers can afford and use easily was evaluated in this paper. A field experiment was conducted at the University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Farm to evaluate the performance of okra under modified bucket drip kit (BDK) and wateringcan (WC) methods of irrigation for three growing seasons between 2011 and 2013. The BDK irrigation treatment had a higher mean percentage plant survival (92.9%) than those under the WC method (90.7%). The number of okra leaves, plant height and stem diameter were consistently higher under BDK irrigation than under WC irrigation for the three growing seasons. Harvested number of fresh fruits was only significantly higher under BDK method than WC method by 40.8% and 11.1%, respectively, for the second and third seasons. The plots under BDK irrigation system produced higher fresh fruit weight than the WC method by 0.1, 1.1, 7.4 t ha-1 respectively for the first, second and third seasons. The BDK performed better than WC in terms of okra growth and yields.

Chemical Analysis of Soil and Fertilizers and Fertilizers Synergetic Effect After Cultivation of Same Crop in Some Season in Areas of South East District of Maharashtra

Declining soil fertility resulting from continuous cultivation of same crop in same field then decrease the soil fertility, in present paper the comparative study of effect of chemical fertilizer with poultry manure and farmed yield manure and effect of it on soil fertility were studied by using of chemical fertilizer soil fertility decrease faster than poultry and farmed manure. A study was conducted under observation. The experiment aimed at evaluating the effect of fertilizers on chemical parameter and percentage of some essential elements in soil. The two levels of fertilizers treatments were randomized in main plots while three types of organic manures (FYM, Poultry manure, chemical fertilizers) and control treatments were randomized in the subplots. Top soil (0-30cm depth) were sampled before sowing and after first and second cultivation of crop and analyzed the properties of soil like, PH and percentage of N, P, K, O and C. In present this study may be associated with the supply of essential nutrients by continuous mineralization of organic manures, enhanced inherent nutrient supplying capacity of the soil and its favorable effect on soil physical and biological properties.

Temporal Downscaling of TRMM Rain-Rate Images Using Principal Component Analysis during Heavy Tropical Thunderstorm Seasons

Abstract This paper examines the utility of principal component analysis (PCA) in obtaining accurate daily rainfall estimates from 3-hourly Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite data during heavy precipitation in a humid tropical environment. A large bias during heavy thunderstorms in humid tropical catchments is indicated by the TRMM satellite and is of profound concern because it is a conspicuous constraint for practical hydrology applications and requires proper treatment, particularly in areas with sparse rain gauges. The common procedure of calculating daily rainfall estimates by direct accumulation (DA) of a series of 3-hourly rainfall estimates caused a large bias because of temporal uncertainties, upscaling effects, and different mechanisms. In this study, PCA was used to transform correlated 3-hourly rain-rate images into a minimum effective principal component and to compute the corresponding rain-rate proportion based on correlation strength. This study was conducted on 91 rainy days of various intensity, acquired from three different years, during the wettest season on the eastern coast of peninsular Malaysia. Results showed that PCA reduced the bias and daily root-mean-square error by an average of 62% and 22%, respectively, compared with the DA approach. The PCA transformation was able to produce more precise daily rainfall estimates compared to the DA approach without the use of any rain gauge references. However, the performance was varied by the threshold selection and rainfall intensity. The results of this study indicate that PCA can be a useful tool in effective temporal downscaling of TRMM satellite data during heavy thunderstorm seasons in areas where rain gauges are sparse and satellite data are pivotal as a secondary source of rainfall data.

Effects of conservation status of the riparian vegetation on fish assemblage structure in neotropical headwater streams

The aims of this study were to investigate the relationships between the riparian vegetation and fish assemblages (structure, composition and diet) in forested (Riparian Cover ≥80%; Canopy cover ≥90%) and deforested (RC < 80%; CC < 90%) headwater streams and to test how those assemblage characteristics respond temporally in streams with different conservation conditions. We sampled in five Neotropical headwater streams during dry and wet season in areas of natural and degraded riparian vegetation on central Brazil. The fish assemblage structure was related to the conservation status of the stream, and no differences were observed in the assemblages between seasons. Allochthonous food items represented 47% of the fishes’ diet, followed by items of unknown origin and autochthonous items. Only Astyanax sp. and Astyanax rivularis showed evidence of temporal diet variation. The consumption of a wide spectrum of food items was an outstanding feature, indicating the fishes’ capacity to adapt to ecosystem changes. Differences between natural and deforested streams demonstrated the importance of the riparian zone as an indirect selective force on diets and composition of fish communities in headwater streams, suggesting that changes in the structure and composition of riparian vegetation may significantly affect the integrity of fish communities.

Seasonal variation in wing size and shape between geographic populations of the malaria vector, Anopheles coluzzii in Burkina Faso (West Africa)

The mosquito, Anopheles coluzzii is a major vector of human malaria in Africa with widespread distribution throughout the continent. The species hence populates a wide range of environments in contrasted ecological settings often exposed to strong seasonal fluctuations. In the dry savannahs of West Africa, this mosquito population dynamics closely follows the pace of surface water availability: the species pullulates during the rainy season and is able to reproduce throughout the dry season in areas where permanent water bodies are available for breeding. The impact of such environmental fluctuation on mosquito development and the phenotypic quality of emerging adults has however not been addressed in details. Here, we examined and compared phenotypic changes in the duration of pre-imaginal development, body dry mass at emergence and wing size, shape and surface area in young adult females An. coluzzii originated from five distinct geographic locations when they are reared in two contrasting conditions mimicking those experienced by mosquitoes during the rainy season (RS) and at the onset of the dry season (ODS) in Burkina Faso (West Africa). Our results demonstrated strong phenotypic plasticity in all traits, with differences in the magnitude and direction of changes between RS and ODS depending upon the geographic origin, hence the genetic background of the mosquito populations. Highest heterogeneity within population was observed in Bama, where large irrigation schemes allow year-round mosquito breeding. Further studies are needed to explore the adaptive value of such phenotypic plasticity and its relevance for local adaptation in An. coluzzii.

The thermal performance of seawater-source heat pump systems in areas of severe cold during winter

The research concerning ocean energy exploitation in North China is undoubtedly of significant importance to the development of the national ocean energy. The use of seawater heat pump (SWHP) systems is a better choice than air-source heat pump (ASHP) systems. The latter systems have a lower efficiency because of the formation of frost on the surface of its airside heat exchanger when the ambient air temperature is low. This paper reports research investigating the system efficiency of SWHP systems in areas of severe cold during winter. Experiments are conducted to compare the thermal performance of the beach well infiltration intake systems (BWIS) and the helical coil heat exchanger (HCHE) for SWHP systems in the Bohai Sea, Tianjin, North China. Heat transfer rate, COP (coefficient of performance) values, exergy efficiencies and exergy destruction rates of the SWHP systems with BWIS and HCHE are presented and compared with the ASHP systems. The study results indicate that the BWIS for SWHP systems has the highest thermal performance during the whole heating season in areas of severe cold during winter. That performance is observed because icing on the outer surfaces of the tubes of the HCHE and frost formation on the surface of the heat exchanger of the ASHP have great effects on the heat transfer performance. The Heating seasonal performance factor (HSPF) is used to express the performance of heat pump systems over the entire heating season. Economic analyses of the BWIS and HCHE are performed according to local economics to compare the application of the HCHE and BWIS, and the results indicate that the HCHE has a better economic value.

Phytosociology in agricultural areas submitted to distinct wintercropping management

Studies related to weed dynamics are essential for agricultural sustainability in tropical soils, as their interference can cause significant yield losses, especially in crops with lower competitive ability. This study aimed to assess the composition of weed communities in the third cropping season in areas submitted to distinct wintercroppings for two consecutive years. Evaluations were made in terms of species composition, level of infestation, and severity of occurrence of each weed species in relation to the others within the same area. The wintercropping management systems were: (1) Brachiaria ruziziensis; (2) corn intercropped with B. ruziziensis; (3) corn and (4) cowpea. Plant communities under these wintercrop systems were evaluated in the third year in terms of relative frequency, relative dominance, relative abundance and importance index for each species. Areas were also compared in terms of species composition by the Sorensen's similarity coefficient. Two years of distinct wintercrop managements were not enough to cause a significant shift in terms of weed composition and severity in a given area. There is also evidence that some weed species are more favored by specific crops, although the causes of this selective behavior are not fully explored in this article. The presence of B. ruziziensis, either alone or intercropped with corn, resulted in lower similarity coefficients when compared to areas where this species was not present. It is suggested that several mechanisms briefly discussed may be involved in the impact of the presence of B. ruziziensis on the weed community.

Linking plant composition and arthropod abundance to establish little bustard breeding requirements in pastureland dominated landscapes

Most research on steppe bird habitat selection has been focused on the effects of management regimes or vegetation structure. However, much less is known on how plant composition is related with steppe bird occurrence. We investigated microhabitat of little bustard territorial males and females during the nesting and chick-rearing season in areas with dominance of pastureland focusing on plant composition. We searched for relationships between preferred vegetation and arthropod abundance in order to identify the contribution of different vegetation typologies in providing essential trophic resources for the species. Surveys of little bustards were made using car and foot transects. Plant composition was obtained within a 50 × 50 cm square at four sampling replicates and arthropod availability was sampled using a sweep net. Statistical procedures were conducted in three steps: (1) analysis of variance was used to identify at univariate level the plant composition and arthropod variables that were significantly related with both male and female occurrence sites; (2) principal components analysis was performed using the variables with significant results at univariate level; (3) model averaging on generalized linear and mixed models was applied to evaluate the selection probability of each principal component. The species occurs in sites with high floristic richness and high abundance of Fabaceae species, although plant composition differs from male to female sites. These variables were found to be crucial to provide higher abundances of arthropods, notably of Acrididea, Formicidae and some groups of Coleoptera which are decisive for the selection of displaying or female breeding sites.

Evidence for scent marking in vervet monkeys?

We used data from two troops of free-ranging vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) to assess the proposition that the conspicuous chest rubbing observed in this species constitutes scent-marking behavior. Our data indicate that chest-rubbing behavior is associated with higher-ranking males who are more likely to do so during the breeding season in areas where territorial encounters occur. We found no indication that chest rubbing was triggered directly by encounters between troops. We conclude that these data, in conjunction with reports of chest rubbing from other Old World monkeys, are sufficiently suggestive of scent marking to warrant further, directed research and support the suspicion that olfactory cues remain important to catarrhines in a number of domains.

Anthropogenic climate change and allergen exposure: The role of plant biology

Accumulation of anthropogenic gases, particularly CO(2), is likely to have 2 fundamental effects on plant biology. The first is an indirect effect through Earth's increasing average surface temperatures, with subsequent effects on other aspects of climate, such as rainfall and extreme weather events. The second is a direct effect caused by CO(2)-induced stimulation of photosynthesis and plant growth. Both effects are likely to alter a number of fundamental aspects of plant biology and human health, including aerobiology and allergic diseases, respectively. This review highlights the current and projected effect of increasing CO(2) and climate change in the context of plants and allergen exposure, emphasizing direct effects on plant physiologic parameters (eg, pollen production) and indirect effects (eg, fungal sporulation) related to diverse biotic and abiotic interactions. Overall, the review assumes that future global mitigation efforts will be limited and suggests a number of key research areas that will assist in adapting to the ongoing challenges to public health associated with increased allergen exposure.