Sea Urchin Sperm Research Articles

Established and potential physiological roles of bicarbonate-sensing soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) in aquatic animals

Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is a recently recognized source of the signaling molecule cyclic AMP (cAMP) that is genetically and biochemically distinct from the classic G-protein-regulated transmembrane adenylyl cyclases (tmACs). Mammalian sAC is distributed throughout the cytoplasm and it may be present in the nucleus and inside mitochondria. sAC activity is directly stimulated by HCO3(-), and sAC has been confirmed to be a HCO3(-) sensor in a variety of mammalian cell types. In addition, sAC can functionally associate with carbonic anhydrases to act as a de facto sensor of pH and CO2. The two catalytic domains of sAC are related to HCO3(-)-regulated adenylyl cyclases from cyanobacteria, suggesting the cAMP pathway is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for sensing CO2 levels and/or acid/base conditions. Reports of sAC in aquatic animals are still limited but are rapidly accumulating. In shark gills, sAC senses blood alkalosis and triggers compensatory H(+) absorption. In the intestine of bony fishes, sAC modulates NaCl and water absorption. And in sea urchin sperm, sAC may participate in the initiation of flagellar movement and in the acrosome reaction. Bioinformatics and RT-PCR results reveal that sAC orthologs are present in most animal phyla. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the physiological roles of sAC in aquatic animals and suggests additional functions in which sAC may be involved.

Self-organized vortices of circling self-propelled particles and curved active flagella

Self-propelled pointlike particles move along circular trajectories when their translocation velocity is constant and the angular velocity related to their orientation vector is also constant. We investigate the collective behavior of ensembles of such circle swimmers by Brownian dynamics simulations. If the particles interact via a "velocity-trajectory coordination" rule within neighboring particles, a self-organized vortex pattern emerges. This vortex pattern is characterized by its particle-density correlation function Gρ, the density correlation function Gc of trajectory centers, and an order parameter S representing the degree of the aggregation of the particles. Here we systematically vary the system parameters, such as the particle density and the interaction range, in order to reveal the transition of the system from a light-vortex-dominated to heavy-vortex-dominated state, where vortices contain mainly a single and many self-propelled particles, respectively. We also study a semidilute solution of curved, sinusoidal-beating flagella, as an example of circling self-propelled particles with explicit propulsion mechanism and excluded-volume interactions. Our simulation results are compared with previous experimental results for the vortices in sea-urchin sperm solutions near a wall. The properties of the vortices in simulations and experiments are found to agree quantitatively.

Use of JC-1 to assess mitochondrial membrane potential in sea urchin sperm

There is a need within marine research areas for more rapid techniques to assess the health of sperm from marine invertebrates. Originating in medical research, flow cytometry has been applied to rapidly measure a range of cellular processes within a plethora of different cell types. To date, the transfer of that knowledge to marine research has been limited. A method has been developed to assess mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) in sea urchin (Centrostephanus rodgersii) sperm using the stain 5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′3,3′-tetrathylbenzimidazolyl-carbocyanine iodide (JC-1) and flow cytometry. MMP is a useful indicator of sperm health as the mitochondrion is the single source of ATP production, and the driver of apoptosis. The method was carefully optimised and validated with the use of positive controls. There were strong correlations between MMP measurements and sperm swimming speed and motility (R values of 0.8–0.9, p<0.001). JC-1 successfully differentiated between sperm with low and high MMP. However, in sperm that were treated with the mitochondrial inhibitor, carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), JC-1 fluorescence in stained sperm did not conform to that usually seen for other cell types. Using fluorescence microscopy, it was confirmed that this was due to the formation of J-aggregates in the acrosome vesicle following MMP collapse. To our best knowledge, this is the first report of J-aggregates forming in an organelle other than the mitochondria. This unexpected fluorescence response necessitated the use of a quadrant approach (% high MMP) instead of the usual ratiometric approach (FL2/FL1) to quantify MMP changes. Difficulties overcome during method development are described, many of which were likely related to the required use of seawater as a test medium. The developed method will enable rapid measurement of mitochondrial membrane potential of sea urchin sperm for application in reproductive biology, aquaculture research, and the impact of environmental stressors such as ocean acidification and pollution on sperm development and function.

Characterization of a Gene Family Encoding SEA (Sea-urchin Sperm Protein, Enterokinase and Agrin)-Domain Proteins with Lectin-Like and Heme-Binding Properties from Schistosoma japonicum

BackgroundWe previously identified a novel gene family dispersed in the genome of Schistosoma japonicum by retrotransposon-mediated gene duplication mechanism. Although many transcripts were identified, no homolog was readily identifiable from sequence information.Methodology/Principal FindingsHere, we utilized structural homology modeling and biochemical methods to identify remote homologs, and characterized the gene products as SEA (sea-urchin sperm protein, enterokinase and agrin)-domain containing proteins. A common extracellular domain in this family was structurally similar to SEA-domain. SEA-domain is primarily a structural domain, known to assist or regulate binding to glycans. Recombinant proteins from three members of this gene family specifically interacted with glycosaminoglycans with high affinity, with potential implication in ligand acquisition and immune evasion. Similar approach was used to identify a heme-binding site on the SEA-domain. The heme-binding mode showed heme molecule inserted into a hydrophobic pocket, with heme iron putatively coordinated to two histidine axial ligands. Heme-binding properties were confirmed using biochemical assays and UV-visible absorption spectroscopy, which showed high affinity heme-binding (K D = 1.605×10−6 M) and cognate spectroscopic attributes of hexa-coordinated heme iron. The native proteins were oligomers, antigenic, and are localized on adult worm teguments and gastrodermis; major host-parasite interfaces and site for heme detoxification and acquisition.ConclusionsThe results suggest potential role, at least in the nucleation step of heme crystallization (hemozoin formation), and as receptors for heme uptake. Survival strategies exploited by parasites, including heme homeostasis mechanism in hemoparasites, are paramount for successful parasitism. Thus, assessing prospects for application in disease intervention is warranted.

Identification of a Pseudotetrameric K+-Selective CNG Channel in Amphioxus

A K+-selective cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNGK) channel is key for chemotaxis in sea urchin sperm; it translates the second messenger signal after chemoattractant binding into an electrical response. We identified genes homologous to the sea urchin channel in the genome of different species - from invertebrates to vertebrates.We cloned the CNGK channel from the testis of Amphioxus; Amphioxus, a chordateis considered as evolutionary link between invertebrates and vertebrates. We raised polyclonal antibodies to localize the channel in tissue and identified the channel in the flagellum of Amphioxus sperm. We analyzed the properties of the channel by functional expression and its physiological function by motility experiments of swimming sperm cells. Surprisingly, in contrast to the sea urchin CNGK channel, the Amphioxus CNGK channel seems to prefer cAMP over cGMP. In conclusion, signal transduction schemes in different sperm species display considerable diversity.

Characterization of NAADP-mediated calcium signaling in human spermatozoa

Ca2+ signaling in spermatozoa plays a crucial role during processes such as capacitation and release of the acrosome, but the underlying molecular mechanisms still remain unclear. Nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) is a potent Ca2+-releasing second messenger in a variety of cellular processes. The presence of a NAADP synthesizing enzyme in sea urchin sperm has been previously reported, suggesting a possible role of NAADP in sperm Ca2+ signaling. In this work we used in vitro enzyme assays to show the presence of a novel NAADP synthesizing enzyme in human sperm, and to characterize its sensitivity to Ca2+ and pH. Ca2+ fluorescence imaging studies demonstrated that the permeable form of NAADP (NAADP-AM) induces intracellular [Ca2+] increases in human sperm even in the absence of extracellular Ca2+. Using LysoTracker®, a fluorescent probe that selectively accumulates in acidic compartments, we identified two such stores in human sperm cells. Their acidic nature was further confirmed by the reduction in staining intensity observed upon inhibition of the endo-lysosomal proton pump with Bafilomycin, or after lysosomal bursting with glycyl-l-phenylalanine-2-naphthylamide. The selective fluorescent NAADP analog, Ned-19, stained the same subcellular regions as LysoTracker®, suggesting that these stores are the targets of NAADP action.

A Mechanistic Study of the Spontaneous Hydrolysis of Glycylserine as the Simplest Model for Protein Self‐Cleavage

A common feature of several classes of intrinsically reactive proteins with diverse biological functions is that they undergo self-catalyzed reactions initiated by an N→O or N→S acyl shift of a peptide bond adjacent to a serine, threonine, or cysteine residue. In this study, we examine the N→O acyl shift initiated peptide-bond hydrolysis at the serine residue on a model compound, glycylserine (GlySer), by means of DFT and ab initio methods. In the most favorable rate-determining transition state, the serine COO(-) group acts as a general base to accept a proton from the attacking OH function, which results in oxyoxazolidine ring closure. The calculated activation energy (29.4 kcal mol(-1) ) is in excellent agreement with the experimental value, 29.4 kcal mol(-1) , determined by (1) H NMR measurements. A reaction mechanism for the entire process of GlySer dipeptide hydrolysis is also proposed. In the case of proteins, we found that when no other groups that may act as a general base are available, the N→O acyl shift mechanism might instead involve a water-assisted proton transfer from the attacking serine OH group to the amide oxygen. However, the calculated energy barrier for this process is relatively high (33.6 kcal mol(-1) ), thus indicating that in absence of catalytic factors the peptide bond adjacent to serine is no longer a weak point in the protein backbone. An analogous rearrangement involving the amide N-protonated form, rather than the principle zwitterion form of GlySer, was also considered as a model for the previously proposed mechanism of sea-urchin sperm protein, enterokinase, and agrin (SEA) domain autoproteolysis. The calculated activation energy (14.3 kcal mol(-1) ) is significantly lower than the experimental value reported for SEA (≈21 kcal mol(-1) ), but is still in better agreement as compared to earlier theoretical attempts.

Autocrine/Paracrine Function of Nicotinic Acid Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NAADP) for Glucose Homeostasis in Pancreatic β-Cells and Adipocytes

Nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) is a second messenger for mobilizing Ca(2+) from intracellular stores in various cell types. Extracellular application of NAADP has been shown to elicit intracellular Ca(2+) signals, indicating that it is readily transported into cells. However, little is known about the functional role of this NAADP uptake system. Here, we show that NAADP is effectively transported into selected cell types involved in glucose homeostasis, such as adipocytes and pancreatic β-cells, but not the acinar cells, in a high glucose-dependent manner. NAADP uptake was inhibitable by Ned-19, a NAADP mimic; dipyridamole, a nucleoside inhibitor; or NaN3, a metabolic inhibitor or under Ca(2+)-free conditions. Furthermore, NAADP was found to be released from pancreatic islets upon stimulation by high glucose. Consistently, administration of NAADP to type 2 diabetic mice improved glucose tolerance. We propose that NAADP is functioning as an autocrine/paracrine hormone important in glucose homeostasis. NAADP is thus a potential antidiabetic agent with therapeutic relevance.

Certain Strongylocentrotus purpuratus sperm mitochondrial proteins co-purify with low density detergent-insoluble membranes and are PKA or PKC-substrates possibly involved in sperm motility regulation

BackgroundSea urchin sperm motility is regulated by Speract, a sperm-activating peptide (SAP) secreted from the outer egg coat. Upon binding to its receptor in the sperm flagellum, Speract induces a series of ionic and metabolic changes in Strongylocentrotus purpuratus spermatozoa that regulate their motility. Among these events, protein phosphorylation is one of the most relevant and evidence indicates that some proteins of the Speract signaling cascade localize in low density detergent-insoluble membranes (LD-DIM). MethodsLD-DIM-derived proteins from immotile, motile or Speract-stimulated S. purpuratus sperm were resolved in 2-D gels and the PKA and PKC substrates detected with specific antibodies were identified by LC–MS/MS. ResultsDifferential PKA and PKC substrate phosphorylation levels among the LD-DIM isolated from sperm in different motility conditions were found and identified by mass spectrometry as: ATP synthase, creatine kinase, NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) flavoprotein 2, succinyl-CoA ligase and the voltage-dependent anion channel 2 (VDAC2), which are mitochondrial proteins, as well as, the cAMP-dependent protein kinase type II regulatory (PKA RII) subunit, Tubulin β chain and Actin Cy I changed their phosphorylation state. ConclusionsSome mitochondrial proteins regulated by PKA or PKC may influence sea urchin sperm motility. General significanceThe fact that a high percentage (66%) of the PKA or PKC substrates identified in LD-DIM are mitochondrial proteins suggests that the phosphorylation of these proteins modulates sea urchin sperm motility via Speract stimulation by providing sufficient energy to sperm physiology. Those mitochondrial proteins are indeed PKA- or PKC-substrates in the sea urchin spermatozoa.

The counterbend phenomenon in flagellar axonemes and cross-linked filament bundles

Recent observations of flagellar counterbend in sea urchin sperm show that the mechanical induction of curvature in one part of a passive flagellum induces a compensatory countercurvature elsewhere. This apparent paradoxical effect cannot be explained using the standard elastic rod theory of Euler and Bernoulli, or even the more general Cosserat theory of rods. Here, we develop a geometrically exact mechanical model to describe the statics of microtubule bundles that is capable of predicting the curvature reversal events observed in eukaryotic flagella. This is achieved by allowing the interaction of deformations in different material directions, by accounting not only for structural bending, but also for the elastic forces originating from the internal cross-linking mechanics. Large-amplitude static configurations can be described analytically, and an excellent match between the model and the observed counterbend deformation was found. This allowed a simultaneous estimation of multiple sperm flagellum material parameters, namely the cross-linking sliding resistance, the bending stiffness, and the sperm head junction compliance ratio. We further show that small variations on the empirical conditions may induce discrepancies for the evaluation of the flagellar material quantities, so that caution is required when interpreting experiments. Finally, our analysis demonstrates that the counterbend emerges as a fundamental property of sliding resistance in cross-linked filamentous polymer bundles, which also suggests that cross-linking proteins may contribute to the regulation of the flagellar waveform in swimming sperm via counterbend mechanics.

Polysialic Acid Is Present in Mammalian Semen as a Post-translational Modification of the Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule NCAM and the Polysialyltransferase ST8SiaII

Fertilization in animals is a complex sequence of several biochemical events beginning with the insemination into the female reproductive tract and, finally, leading to embryogenesis. Studies by Kitajima and co-workers (Miyata, S., Sato, C., and Kitajima, K. (2007) Trends Glycosci. Glyc, 19, 85-98) demonstrated the presence of polysialic acid (polySia) on sea urchin sperm. Based on these results, we became interested in the potential involvement of sialic acid polymers in mammalian fertilization. Therefore, we isolated human sperm and performed analyses, including Western blotting and mild 1,2-diamino-4,5-methylenedioxybenzene-HPLC, that revealed the presence α2,8-linked polySia chains. Further analysis by a glyco-proteomics approach led to the identification of two polySia carriers. Interestingly, besides the neural cell adhesion molecule, the polysialyltransferase ST8SiaII has also been found to be a target for polysialylation. Further analysis of testis and epididymis tissue sections demonstrated that only epithelial cells of the caput were polySia-positive. During the epididymal transit, polySia carriers were partially integrated into the sperm membrane of the postacrosomal region. Because polySia is known to counteract histone as well as neutrophil extracellular trap-mediated cytotoxicity against host cells, which plays a role after insemination, we propose that polySia in semen represents a cytoprotective element to increase the number of vital sperm.

Different Migration Patterns of Sea Urchin and Mouse Sperm Revealed by a Microfluidic Chemotaxis Device

Chemotaxis refers to a process whereby cells move up or down a chemical gradient. Sperm chemotaxis is known to be a strategy exploited by marine invertebrates such as sea urchins to reach eggs efficiently in moving water. Less is understood about how or whether chemotaxis is used by mammalian sperm to reach eggs, where fertilization takes place within the confinement of a reproductive tract. In this report, we quantitatively assessed sea urchin and mouse sperm chemotaxis using a recently developed microfluidic model and high-speed imaging. Results demonstrated that sea urchin Arbacia punctulata sperm were chemotactic toward the peptide resact with high chemotactic sensitivity, with an average velocity Vx up the chemical gradient as high as 20% of its average speed (238 μm/s), while mouse sperm displayed no statistically significant chemotactic behavior in progesterone gradients, which had been proposed to guide mammalian sperm toward eggs. This work demonstrates the validity of a microfluidic model for quantitative sperm chemotaxis studies, and reveals a biological insight that chemotaxis up a progesterone gradient may not be a universal strategy for mammalian sperm to reach eggs.

Sensing acid/base conditions via soluble adenylyl cyclase in aquatic animals

Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is a recently discovered enzyme that is stimulated by bicarbonate ions to produce cAMP. In mammals, sAC is sensor of acid/base (A/B) conditions that modulates diverse physiological process, including but not limited to epithelial ion and fluid transport, sperm flagellar movement, and gene transcription. sAC also acts as an A/B sensor in shark gills, boney fish intestine, and sea urchin sperm. Here we show evidence supporting that sAC plays a similar sensing role in other aquatic organisms. (1) based on genomic and RT‐PCR results, sAC is present in Acropora reef‐building corals. In addition, coral tissue homogenates demonstrate an unusually high capacity to produce cAMP, which is stimulated by bicarbonate and sensitive to the sAC inhibitor KH7. 2) A sAC gene is present in the genome of Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas, and sAC mRNA is expressed in gill, mantle and hemocytes. 3) sAC protein is present in several shark tissues (e.g. gill, rectal gland, eye). At least in gill and rectal gland, sAC seems to be located both in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus. 4) sAC orthologs are identifiable in EST, TSA, wgs and HTGS databases from diverse aquatic animals such as placozoan, sponge, anemone, acorn worm, sea squirt, chimera fish, skate, coelacanth, gar, catfish, trout and salmon. We propose sAC is an evolutionarily conserved A/B sensor with diverse and important physiological functions in aquatic animals. Funded by NSF grant 122041 to MT, NSF GRFP to MEB, NSF OCE PDF to MLB, and San Diego Fellowship to JNR.

Crystal Structures of Matriptase in Complex with Its Inhibitor Hepatocyte Growth Factor Activator Inhibitor-1

Matriptase, a type II trans-membrane serine protease of the S1 trypsin-like family, is expressed on the surface of nearly all normal human epithelium and found in biological fluid-like human milk. Matriptase overexpression has been implicated in tumor progression in certain epithelium-derived cancer cells. Matriptase is tightly regulated by its cognate inhibitor hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor-1 (HAI-1). It has been demonstrated that the Kunitz domain I (KD1) but not Kunitz domain II (KD2) of HAI-1 is responsible for the inhibitory activity of HAI-1 against matriptase. To investigate the molecular basis of inhibition of matriptase by HAI-1, we solved several crystal structures of matriptase serine protease domain in complex with the fragments of HAI-1. Based on these structures, we found that the binding of KD1 was different from previously predicted binding mode. The P3 arginine residue occupies the S3 specificity pocket of matriptase, but not the S4 pocket as in the cases of hepatocyte growth factor activator·HAI-1 KD1 and matriptase·sunflower trypsin inhibitor-1 complexes. The long 60-loop of matriptase makes direct contact with HAI-1 but remains flexible even in the complexes, and its apex does not bind with KD1 tightly. The interactions between this unique 60-loop and KD1 may provide an opportunity to increase the specificity and inhibitory activity of KD1 for matriptase. Furthermore, comparison between KD1 and a homology model of HAI-1 KD2 rationalizes the structural basis of why KD1 but not KD2 is responsible for the inhibitory activity of HAI-1 against matriptase.

Unfolding dynamics of the mucin SEA domain probed by force spectroscopy suggest that it acts as a cell‐protective device

MUC1 and other membrane-associated mucins harbor long, up to 1 μm, extended highly glycosylated mucin domains and sea urchin sperm protein, enterokinase and agrin (SEA) domains situated on their extracellular parts. These mucins line luminal tracts and organs, and are anchored to the apical cell membrane by a transmembrane domain. The SEA domain is highly conserved and undergoes a molecular strain-dependent autocatalytic cleavage during folding in the endoplasmic reticulum, a process required for apical plasma membrane expression. To date, no specific function has been designated for the SEA domain. Here, we constructed a recombinant protein consisting of three SEA domains in tandem and used force spectroscopy to assess the dissociation force required to unfold individual, folded SEA domains. Force-distance curves revealed three peaks, each representing unfolding of a single SEA domain. Fitting the observed unfolding events to a worm-like chain model yielded an average contour length of 32 nm per SEA domain. Analysis of forces applied on the recombinant protein revealed an average unfolding force of 168 pN for each SEA domain at a loading rate of 25 nN·s(-1). Thus, the SEA domain may act as a breaking point that can dissociate before the plasma membrane is breached when mechanical forces are applied to cell surfaces.

Cyclic nucleotide permeability through unopposed connexin hemichannels

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a well-known intracellular and intercellular second messenger. The membrane permeability of such molecules has potential importance for autocrine-like or paracrine-like delivery. Here experiments have been designed to demonstrate whether gap junction hemichannels, composed of connexins, are a possible entrance pathway for cyclic nucleotides into the interior of cells. HeLa cells stably expressing connexin43 (Cx43) and connexin26 (Cx26) were used to study the cyclic nucleotide permeability of gap junction hemichannels. For the detection of cAMP uptake, the cells were transfected using the cyclic nucleotide-modulated channel from sea urchin sperm (SpIH) as the cAMP sensor. SpIH derived currents (Im) were recorded in whole-cell/perforated patch clamp configuration. Perfusion of the cells in an external K+ aspartate- (KAsp) solution containing 500 μM cAMP and no extracellular Ca2+, yielded a five to sevenfold increase in the Im current level. The SpIH current increase was associated with detectable hemichannel current activity. Depolarization of cells in Ca2+-free NaCl perfusate with 500 μM cAMP also induced a SpIH current increase. Elevating extracellular Ca2+ to mM levels inhibited hemichannel activity. Perfusion with a depolarizing KAsp solution containing 500 μM cAMP and 2 mM Ca2+ did not increase SpIH currents. The addition of the gap junction blocker carbenoxolone to the external solution inhibited cAMP uptake. Both cell depolarization and lowered extracellular Ca2+ increase the open probability of non-junctional hemichannels. Accordingly, the SpIH current augmentation was induced by the uptake of extracellular cAMP via open membrane hemichannels in Cx43 and Cx26 expressing cells. The data presented here show that hemichannels of Cx43 and Cx26 are permeable to cAMP, and further the data suggest that hemichannels are, in fact, a potential pathway for cAMP mediated cell-to-cell signaling.

Regulations of Microtubule Sliding by Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; and cAMP and Their Roles in Forming Flagellar Waveforms

The function of Ca(2+) and cAMP in extruding doublet microtubules from sea urchin sperm axoneme and generating flagellar waves was investigated in order to clarify the regulatory mechanism of microtubule sliding and the formation mechanism of beating patterns of cilia and flagella. Almost all potentially asymmetric spermatozoa that were demembranated with Triton in the absence of Ca(2+) and reactivated with MgATP(2-) (Gibbons, B.H. and Gibbons, I.R. (1980). J. Cell Biol., 84: 13-27), beat with planar waves closely resembling those of the intact spermatozoa, whereas potentially symmetric spermatozoa, in which axonemal calmodulin was removed by detergent extraction in the presence of millimolar Ca(2+) (Brokaw, C.J. and Nagayama, S.M. (1985). J. Cell Biol., 100: 1875-1883), beat with three-dimensional waves if they were reactivated with low MgATP(2-). At a high MgATP(2-), almost all demembranated spermatozoa beat with planar waves. cAMP enhanced the three-dimensionality of the flagellar waves at a low Ca(2+). These changes in the flagellar waves were caused by different regulations of the microtubule sliding by calcium, cAMP, and MgATP(2-).

Effect of near-future seawater temperature rises on sea urchin sperm longevity

Global warming has and will continue to warm the world’s oceans, which may have detrimental consequences for marine life. Studies assessing the impact of climate-change stressors on early life-stages of marine invertebrates have focussed on immediate fertilisation success or larval development, but have so far not considered gamete longevity. Recent studies have suggested that sea urchin fertilisation can take place for several hours, as dilute spermatozoa can travel to fertilise distant eggs, making gamete longevity an important factor in fertilisation success for some species. The longevity of spermatozoa from Heliocidaris tuberculata was assessed over a 3-h exposure to current ambient (20°C), near-future (24°C) and future (26°C) ocean-temperature scenarios. Sperm mitochondrial activity was also measured throughout the 3-h exposure using the stain Rhodamine 123 (Rh123) and flow cytometry. Sperm longevity, based on fertilisation success, significantly decreased following a 1-h exposure at 26°C, or a 3-h exposure at 24°C, relative to the 20°C treatment. However, sperm mitochondrial activity did not correlate with fertilisation success. Even when fertilisation success was below 20%, Rh123 uptake remained above 80%, indicating the presence of active mitochondria in non-viable spermatozoa. Our results suggested that at projected sea-surface temperatures, the longevity of sea urchin spermatozoa is reduced, which may have consequences for sea urchin population dynamics.

Niflumic acid disrupts marine spermatozoan chemotaxis without impairing the spatiotemporal detection of chemoattractant gradients

In many broadcast-spawning marine organisms, oocytes release chemicals that guide conspecific spermatozoa towards them through chemotaxis. In the sea urchin Lytechinus pictus, the chemoattractant peptide speract triggers a train of fluctuations of intracellular Ca(2+) concentration in the sperm flagella. Each transient Ca(2+) elevation leads to a momentary increase in flagellar bending asymmetry, known as a chemotactic turn. Furthermore, chemotaxis requires a precise spatiotemporal coordination between the Ca(2+)-dependent turns and the form of chemoattractant gradient. Spermatozoa that perform Ca(2+)-dependent turns while swimming down the chemoattractant gradient, and conversely suppress turning events while swimming up the gradient, successfully approach the center of the gradient. Previous experiments in Strongylocentrotus purpuratus sea urchin spermatozoa showed that niflumic acid (NFA), an inhibitor of several ion channels, drastically altered the speract-induced Ca(2+) fluctuations and swimming patterns. In this study, mathematical modeling of the speract-dependent Ca(2+) signaling pathway suggests that NFA, by potentially affecting hyperpolarization-activated and cyclic nucleotide-gated channels, Ca(2+)-regulated Cl(-) channels and/or Ca(2+)-regulated K(+) channels, may alter the temporal organization of Ca(2+) fluctuations, and therefore disrupt chemotaxis. We used a novel automated method for analyzing sperm behavior and we identified that NFA does indeed disrupt chemotactic responses of L. pictus spermatozoa, although the temporal coordination between the Ca(2+)-dependent turns and the form of chemoattractant gradient is unaltered. Instead, NFA disrupts sperm chemotaxis by altering the arc length traveled during each chemotactic turning event. This alteration in the chemotactic turn trajectory disorientates spermatozoa at the termination of the turning event. We conclude that NFA disrupts chemotaxis without affecting how the spermatozoa decode environmental cues.

Black Tea High-Molecular-Weight Polyphenol Increases the Motility of Sea Urchin Sperm by Activating Mitochondrial Respiration

Mitochondria activation factor (MAF) is a high-molecular-weight polyphenol purified from black tea that activates mitochondrial respiration. It increased the mitochondrial membrane potential and motility of sea urchin sperm, by up to 8%, to the same extent as sperm-activating peptides (SAPs) secreted by the egg. Unlike SAPs, MAF had no effect on sperm swimming behavior, suggesting that the mechanism of sperm activation by MAF is different from that of SAPs.