Sea Otters Research Articles

Bartonella spp. exposure in northern and southern sea otters in Alaska and California.

Since 2002, an increased number of northern sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) from southcentral Alaska have been reported to be dying due to endocarditis and/or septicemia with infection by Streptococcus infantarius subsp. coli. Bartonella spp. DNA was also detected in northern sea otters as part of mortality investigations during this unusual mortality event (UME) in Kachemak Bay, Alaska. To evaluate the extent of exposure to Bartonella spp. in sea otters, sera collected from necropsied and live-captured northern sea otters, as well as necropsied southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) unaffected by the UME, were analyzed using an immunofluorescent antibody assay. Antibodies against Bartonella spp. were detected in sera from 50% of necropsied and 34% of presumed healthy, live-captured northern sea otters and in 16% of necropsied southern sea otters. The majority of sea otters with reactive sera were seropositive for B. washoensis, with antibody titers ranging from 1:64 to 1:256. Bartonella spp. antibodies were especially common in adult northern sea otters, both free-living (49%) and necropsied (62%). Adult stranded northern sea otters that died from infectious causes, such as opportunistic bacterial infections, were 27 times more likely to be Bartonella seropositive than adult stranded northern sea otters that died from noninfectious causes (p<0.001; 95% confidence interval 2.62-269.4). Because Bartonella spp. antibodies were detected in necropsied northern sea otters from southcentral (44%) and southwestern (86%) stocks of Alaska, as well as in necropsied southern sea otters (16%) in southcentral California, we concluded that Bartonella spp. exposure is widely distributed among sea otter populations in the Eastern Pacific, providing context for investigating future disease outbreaks and monitoring of Bartonella infections for sea otter management and conservation.

Testing the nutritional-limitation, predator-avoidance, and storm-avoidance hypotheses for restricted sea otter habitat use in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska.

Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) inhabiting the Aleutian Islands have stabilized at low abundance levels following a decline and currently exhibit restricted habitat-utilization patterns. Possible explanations for restricted habitat use by sea otters can be classified into two fundamentally different processes, bottom-up and top-down forcing. Bottom-up hypotheses argue that changes in the availability or nutritional quality of prey resources have led to the selective use of habitats that support the highest quality prey. In contrast, top-down hypotheses argue that increases in predation pressure from killer whales have led to the selective use of habitats that provide the most effective refuge from killer whale predation. A third hypothesis suggests that current restricted habitat use is based on a need for protection from storms. We tested all three hypotheses for restricted habitat use by comparing currently used and historically used sea otter foraging locations for: (1) prey availability and quality, (2) structural habitat complexity, and (3) exposure to prevailing storms. Our findings suggest that current use is based on physical habitat complexity and not on prey availability, prey quality, or protection from storms, providing further evidence for killer whale predation as a cause for restricted sea otter habitat use in the Aleutian Islands.

Aquatic polymers can drive pathogen transmission in coastal ecosystems.

Gelatinous polymers including extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) are fundamental to biophysical processes in aquatic habitats, including mediating aggregation processes and functioning as the matrix of biofilms. Yet insight into the impact of these sticky molecules on the environmental transmission of pathogens in the ocean is limited. We used the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii as a model to evaluate polymer-mediated mechanisms that promote transmission of terrestrially derived pathogens to marine fauna and humans. We show that transparent exopolymer particles, a particulate form of EPS, enhance T. gondii association with marine aggregates, material consumed by organisms otherwise unable to access micrometre-sized particles. Adhesion to EPS biofilms on macroalgae also captures T. gondii from the water, enabling uptake of pathogens by invertebrates that feed on kelp surfaces. We demonstrate the acquisition, concentration and retention of T. gondii by kelp-grazing snails, which can transmit T. gondii to threatened California sea otters. Results highlight novel mechanisms whereby aquatic polymers facilitate incorporation of pathogens into food webs via association with particle aggregates and biofilms. Identifying the critical role of invisible polymers in transmission of pathogens in the ocean represents a fundamental advance in understanding and mitigating the health impacts of coastal habitat pollution with contaminated runoff.

Innervation patterns of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) mystacial follicle-sinus complexes.

Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) are the most recent group of mammals to return to the sea, and may exemplify divergent somatosensory tactile systems among mammals. Therefore, we quantified the mystacial vibrissal array of sea otters and histologically processed follicle-sinus complexes (F - SCs) to test the hypotheses that the number of myelinated axons per F - SC is greater than that found for terrestrial mammalian vibrissae and that their organization and microstructure converge with those of pinniped vibrissae. A mean of 120.5 vibrissae were arranged rostrally on a broad, blunt muzzle in 7–8 rows and 9–13 columns. The F-SCs of sea otters are tripartite in their organization and similar in microstructure to pinnipeds rather than terrestrial species. Each F-SC was innervated by a mean 1339 ± 408.3 axons. Innervation to the entire mystacial vibrissal array was estimated at 161,313 axons. Our data support the hypothesis that the disproportionate expansion of the coronal gyrus in somatosensory cortex of sea otters is related to the high innervation investment of the mystacial vibrissal array, and that quantifying innervation investment is a good proxy for tactile sensitivity. We predict that the tactile performance of sea otter mystacial vibrissae is comparable to that of harbor seals, sea lions and walruses.

Sea otter (&lt;I&gt;Enhydra lutris&lt;/I&gt;) foraging habitat use in a heterogeneous environment in Kachemak Bay off Alaska

Sea otters, Enhydra lutris (Linnaeus, 1758), forage in a mosaic of habitat types. The relative use of heterogeneous environments by sea otters is largely unknown. Here, we examined whether foraging sea otters selectively use habitats based on substratum grain size and/or prey availability. Use by foraging sea otters was determined by the occurrence of foraging activity documented by VHF radio-tagged otters and by field collected data on substratum types and prey. Selection for substratum type and prey was determined by comparing currently used vs available foraging locations. We found that foraging sea otters used rocky habitats to a greater extent than soft sediment habitats, but did not necessarily use areas with higher prey abundance, biomass, or potential energy density per unit area.

Sea otter dental enamel is highly resistant to chipping due to its microstructure.

Dental enamel is prone to damage by chipping with large hard objects at forces that depend on chip size and enamel toughness. Experiments on modern human teeth have suggested that some ante-mortem chips on fossil hominin enamel were produced by bite forces near physiological maxima. Here, we show that equivalent chips in sea otter enamel require even higher forces than human enamel. Increased fracture resistance correlates with more intense enamel prism decussation, often seen also in some fossil hominins. It is possible therefore that enamel chips in such hominins may have formed at even greater forces than currently envisaged.

The comeback cubs

The sea otter population is booming in Canada, with dramatic results. Jude Isabella reports

Hearing in the sea otter (Enhydra lutris): auditory profiles for an amphibious marine carnivore.

In this study we examine the auditory capabilities of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris), an amphibious marine mammal that remains virtually unstudied with respect to its sensory biology. We trained an adult male sea otter to perform a psychophysical task in an acoustic chamber and at an underwater apparatus. Aerial and underwater audiograms were constructed from detection thresholds for narrowband signals measured in quiet conditions at frequencies from 0.125-40 kHz. Aerial hearing thresholds were also measured in the presence of octave-band masking noise centered at eight signal frequencies (0.25-22.6 kHz) so that critical ratios could be determined. The aerial audiogram of the sea otter resembled that of sea lions and showed a reduction in low-frequency sensitivity relative to terrestrial mustelids. Best sensitivity was -1 dB re 20 µPa at 8 kHz. Under water, hearing sensitivity was significantly reduced when compared to sea lions and other pinniped species, demonstrating that sea otter hearing is primarily adapted to receive airborne sounds. Critical ratios were more than 10 dB higher than those measured for pinnipeds, suggesting that sea otters are less efficient than other marine carnivores at extracting acoustic signals from background noise, especially at frequencies below 2 kHz.

Understanding and saving big predators The Carnivore Way Coexisting with and Conserving North America's Predators Cristina Eisenberg Island Press, 2014. 325 pp.

Understanding and saving big predators <b>The Carnivore Way</b> Coexisting with and Conserving North America's Predators <i>Cristina Eisenberg</i> Island Press, 2014. 325 pp.

Hearing in Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris): Audible Frequencies Determined from a Controlled Exposure Approach

The sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is an amphibious marine mammal that is vulnerable to coastal anthropogenic disturbance. Effective management of noise-generating activities within sea otter habitats requires information about hearing that is presently unavailable for this species. As an initial step toward describing the auditory capabilities of sea otters, we used a controlled exposure approach to conservatively estimate the aerial frequency range of hearing in four captive individuals. The study was designed to determine which frequencies were audible to each animal rather than to quantify auditory sensitivity. To this end, the sea otters were intermittently exposed to relatively highamplitude tones between 0.063 and 45.3 kHz— and to blank “control” events—during periods of sustained rest. Positive responses to both the sound exposure trials and the control trials were scored by experimentally blind observers and used to determine statistically reliable detections at each frequency. The widest confirmed hearing range measured for the sea otters was 0.125 to 32 kHz. Our results indicate that sea otters can detect a broad range of airborne sounds, similar to many terrestrial carnivores that have been studied. These are the first hearing measurements obtained for this species, and the results are relevant to improving understanding of sea otter acoustic communication, evolutionary biology, and behavioral ecology, as well as in supporting ongoing conservation efforts. This method can be adapted to examine the acoustic detection capabilities of species for which little data are available and for which conventional audiometry may prove challenging.

Review: No Otter Zone

Book Review| September 01 2014 Review: No Otter Zone No Otter Zone (DVD, 2012, 16 minutes; The Video Project, http://www.videoproject.com) Richard Lord, Jr. Richard Lord, Jr. 123 Blake Ave. Saco, ME 04072 e-mail: rnlord@aol.com. Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar The American Biology Teacher (2014) 76 (7): 481. https://doi.org/10.1525/abt.2014.76.7.12b Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Richard Lord, Jr.; Review: No Otter Zone. The American Biology Teacher 1 September 2014; 76 (7): 481. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/abt.2014.76.7.12b Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentThe American Biology Teacher Search Sea otters once ranged along the west coast of America from the Aleutian Islands of Alaska to Baja California in Mexico. Because of the value of their fur, humans hunted them to near extinction, leaving behind just a few isolated populations. In the absence of sea otters, the ecology of these regions changed. Urchins, the sea otters’ natural prey, reproduced rapidly, eventually supporting a thriving urchin fishing industry. In 1982, a plan was crafted to relocate sea otters in an attempt to recover their populations. To protect the fishermen’s interests, a “no otter zone” was set up from Point Conception, California, to the Mexican border. Organizers intended to insert otters near San Nicolas Island, one of the Channel Islands. Yet some otters moved into the “no otter zone.” Soon after, urchin fishermen and environmental groups seeking to conserve otter populations began to clash. No Otter Zone features biologists, environmentalists, and... You do not currently have access to this content.

Time and energy allocation of female sea otters (Enhydra lutris) with pups in Alaska

The behavior of sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) with dependent pups was observed between May and August of 2005–2010 in Simpson Bay, Alaska using focal follows and instantaneous sampling. Six behaviors (foraging, grooming, resting, swimming, swimming slowly and interacting) were recorded during four, 6-h time periods (dawn [05:00–11:00], day [11:00–17:00], dusk [17:00–23:00] and night [23:00–05:00]) to create a 24-h activity budget. Overall, 1190 focal follows were conducted for a total of 595h. Females with dependent pups spent the greatest percentage of the day resting (42%), about equal percentages foraging (18%), grooming (15%), swimming (15%), swimming slowly (8%) and interacting (2%). Field Metabolic Rate (FMR) was estimated by using the oxygen consumption (mlO2min−1kg−1) for each behavior for captive otters (Yeates et al., 2007). The estimated FMR for females with a dependent pup was 12.69MJday−1 with the following absolute and percentage allocations for each behavior: foraging 2.38 (19%), grooming 2.70 (21%), resting 3.42 (27%), swimming 2.64 (21%), swimming slowly 1.25 (10%) and interacting 0.3 (2%). The estimated weight specific FMR was 601kJday−1kg−1, similar to that reported for territorial males in the same area. The sea otter population in Simpson Bay has been stable for at least the last 12years. It would follow then that the time spent foraging might be similar to other areas where the population is stable, but this is not the case. In Simpson Bay, the time spent foraging is more similar to areas that have been recently occupied. The relatively small amount of time spent foraging may indicate that geographic differences (structure of the near-shore community: substrate, water depth, kelp canopy, prey assemblage, and competitors) may play a greater role in determining the amount of time spent foraging than population status.

Effects of wildfire on sea otter (Enhydra lutris) gene transcript profiles

AbstractWildfires have been shown to impact terrestrial species over a range of temporal scales. Little is known, however, about the more subtle toxicological effects of wildfires, particularly in downstream marine or downwind locations from the wildfire perimeter. These down‐current effects may be just as substantial as those effects within the perimeter. We used gene transcription technology, a sensitive indicator of immunological perturbation, to study the effects of the 2008 Basin Complex Fire on the California coast on a sentinel marine species, the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). We captured sea otters in 2008 (3 mo after the Basin Complex Fire was controlled) and 2009 (15 mo after the Basin Complex Fire was controlled) in the adjacent nearshore environment near Big Sur, California. Gene responses were distinctly different between Big Sur temporal groups, signifying detoxification of PAHs, possible associated response to potential malignant transformation, and suppression of immune function as the primary responses of sea otters to fire in 2008 compared to those captured in 2009. In general, gene transcription patterns in the 2008 sea otters were indicative of molecular reactions to organic exposure, malignant transformation, and decreased ability to respond to pathogens that seemed to consistent with short‐term hydrocarbon exposure.

Recolonizing sea otters spatially segregate from pinnipeds on the Canadian Pacific coastline: The implications of segregation for species conservation

The reintroduction and recolonization of species extirpated from former ranges are key components of species conservation. Resource availability affects recolonization success and resulting distribution patterns, but top-down processes may also play a role through density-mediated or trait-mediated indirect effects that may exclude a species from otherwise suitable habitat. We predicted that the spatial distribution of recolonizing sea otters, Enhydra lutris, on the Canadian Pacific coastline was explained by resources as well as interspecific interactions – spatial segregation from pinnipeds, the preferred prey of killer whales Orcinus orca. We surveyed the summer occurrence of sea otters and pinnipeds on Vancouver Island, Canada. We quantified coastline density and bathymetry at multiple spatial scales as indices of habitat complexity and foraging habitat availability. We used generalized linear model selection to test hypotheses about sea otters’ spatial relationship to resources and heterospecifics. Pinniped presence negatively predicted sea otter presence, even after accounting for complexity and foraging habitat. Sea otters may segregate from pinnipeds due to trait-mediated indirect effects of predation, leading us to hypothesize apparent competition between sea otters and pinnipeds. Research is needed to test this hypothesis; if true, refuge from apparent competitors may be a key component of recolonization habitat for sea otters. Species distribution models should quantify resource landscapes but also species-scapes: the spatial plane of species interactions that combines with resources to drive species distributions. Conservation plans based on recolonization models that include only resources may overestimate available habitat, carrying capacity, and recolonization success.

Sickness in the Arctic.

The article discusses the ecological impacts of warming temperatures in Arctic regions as of August 2014, focusing on the spread of pathogens into previously unaffected populations. Topics include the spread of seal distemper virus from the Atlantic Ocean to sea otter populations in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, the increased range of parasites such as lungworms in musk oxen, and an increase in ticks and mosquitoes that affect humans.

Motherhood is no picnic for sea otter mums

Sea otters have voracious appetites, and for good reason. As the smallest marine mammals, they face unprecedented metabolic challenges just to stay warm, consuming a quarter of their own body mass each day. And there are times when the metabolic demands of sea otter females rocket even further. Nicole Thometz, from the University of California at Santa Cruz, USA, explains that in addition to the extra cost of lactation, the mums must also expend additional energy while foraging to sustain themselves and their dependents. However, no one knew the true magnitude of the metabolic burden placed on sea otter mothers: ‘neither the energetic demands of immature sea otters nor the cost of lactation for adult females have been quantified’, says Thometz. Fortunately, Thometz and her colleagues had access to the world's most successful sea otter pup rehabilitation program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium in California, where they could measure the metabolic rates of wild sea otter pups while they grew, prior to their return to the ocean, to begin to find out how much of a burden motherhood is for sea otter females (p. 2053).Measuring the metabolic rates of sea otter youngsters (ranging from tiny pre-moult pups to juveniles) as they participated in a range of activities from resting to swimming and foraging, the team discovered that their daily metabolic demands rose from 2.29 MJ day−1 during the first few weeks after birth to 7.41 MJ day−1 when the youngsters were about to begin foraging for themselves; even when the animals were beginning to fend for themselves they continued returning to mum to supplement their diet. It is only after weaning at 6 months that the mothers are truly free of their obligation.Tallying up the metabolic data, the team calculated that to supply a pup with a staggering total of 930 MJ of energy through to independence, the female's daily metabolic rate has to escalate by an extraordinary 96%. And when the team converted this colossal energy expenditure into the amount of energy reserves that a sea otter female would use if unable to increase foraging, they realised that she would consume almost 133% of her own body mass. The only way that sea otters have to make up this gigantic metabolic shortfall is to increase foraging at a time when they are already running near their metabolic limits, stretching an even tighter energy budget still further.The team suspects that this extreme exertion could account for the poor condition of many sea otter mums and their relatively high mortality rates at the end of lactation. It could also account for the relatively high numbers of abandoned pups. Thometz says, ‘Female sea otters are thought to utilize a “bet-hedging” strategy, either keeping or abandoning a pup post-partum [after birth] depending upon physiological factors.’ She explains that females that are in poor condition and unlikely to be able to provide for their young are more likely to abandon their pups after birth to give themselves a better chance of successfully raising a pup during the following breeding attempt. ‘The optimal decision may be to “cut losses”’, says Thometz. And she adds that sea otter mothers may also choose to wean their young sooner to preserve their health, rather than risk their own survival and subsequent breeding attempts by investing too heavily in the present pup, although this strategy places youngsters that were weaned early at a greater risk of mortality after independence.

Energetic demands of immature sea otters from birth to weaning: implications for maternal costs, reproductive behavior and population-level trends.

Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) have the highest mass-specific metabolic rate of any marine mammal, which is superimposed on the inherently high costs of reproduction and lactation in adult females. These combined energetic demands have been implicated in the poor body condition and increased mortality of female sea otters nearing the end of lactation along the central California coast. However, the cost of lactation is unknown and currently cannot be directly measured for this marine species in the wild. Here, we quantified the energetic demands of immature sea otters across five developmental stages as a means of assessing the underlying energetic challenges associated with pup rearing that may contribute to poor maternal condition. Activity-specific metabolic rates, daily activity budgets and field metabolic rates (FMR) were determined for each developmental stage. Mean FMR of pre-molt pups was 2.29 ± 0.81 MJ day(-1) and increased to 6.16 ± 2.46 and 7.41 ± 3.17 MJ day(-1) in post-molt pups and dependent immature animals, respectively. Consequently, daily energy demands of adult females increase 17% by 3 weeks postpartum and continue increasing to 96% above pre-pregnancy levels by the average age of weaning. Our results suggest that the energetics of pup rearing superimposed on small body size, marine living and limited on-board energetic reserves conspire to make female sea otters exceptionally vulnerable to energetic shortfalls. By controlling individual fitness, maternal behavior and pup provisioning strategies, this underlying metabolic challenge appears to be a major factor influencing current population trends in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis).

Origin plasticity during budding yeast DNA replication in vitro

Corrigendum2 June 2014free access Origin plasticity during budding yeast DNA replication in vitro Julien Gros Julien Gros Search for more papers by this author Sujan Devbhandari Sujan Devbhandari Search for more papers by this author Dirk Remus Dirk Remus Search for more papers by this author Julien Gros Julien Gros Search for more papers by this author Sujan Devbhandari Sujan Devbhandari Search for more papers by this author Dirk Remus Dirk Remus Search for more papers by this author Author Information Julien Gros, Sujan Devbhandari and Dirk Remus The EMBO Journal (2014)33:1284-1284https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.201470070 This article corrects the following: Origin plasticity during budding yeast DNA replication in vitro24 February 2014 ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Correction to: The EMBO Journal (2014) 33: 621–636. DOI 10.1002/embj.201387278 | Published online 24 February 2014 In the Acknowledgements section, the following funding source should have been listed: NIH Grant Number P30 CA008748 (DR). Next ArticlePrevious Article Read MoreAbout the coverClose modalView large imageVolume 33,Issue 11,02 June 2014Cover: California sea otter, basking – The image was captured in Moss Landing, Monterey Bay, California, by Matthew Scott, a developmental biologist at Stanford University School of Medicine ( http://med.stanford.edu/labs/matthew_scott/). Matthew is also a regular participant in the annual cover contest organized by The EMBO Journal. Volume 33Issue 112 June 2014In this issue RelatedDetailsLoading ...

Using molecular epidemiology to track Toxoplasma gondii from terrestrial carnivores to marine hosts: implications for public health and conservation.

BackgroundEnvironmental transmission of the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which is shed only by felids, poses risks to human and animal health in temperate and tropical ecosystems. Atypical T. gondii genotypes have been linked to severe disease in people and the threatened population of California sea otters. To investigate land-to-sea parasite transmission, we screened 373 carnivores (feral domestic cats, mountain lions, bobcats, foxes, and coyotes) for T. gondii infection and examined the distribution of genotypes in 85 infected animals sampled near the sea otter range.Methodology/Principal FindingsNested PCR-RFLP analyses and direct DNA sequencing at six independent polymorphic genetic loci (B1, SAG1, SAG3, GRA6, L358, and Apico) were used to characterize T. gondii strains in infected animals. Strains consistent with Type X, a novel genotype previously identified in over 70% of infected sea otters and four terrestrial wild carnivores along the California coast, were detected in all sampled species, including domestic cats. However, odds of Type X infection were 14 times higher (95% CI: 1.3–148.6) for wild felids than feral domestic cats. Type X infection was also linked to undeveloped lands (OR = 22, 95% CI: 2.3–250.7). A spatial cluster of terrestrial Type II infection (P = 0.04) was identified in developed lands bordering an area of increased risk for sea otter Type II infection. Two spatial clusters of animals infected with strains consistent with Type X (P≤0.01) were detected in less developed landscapes.ConclusionsDifferences in T. gondii genotype prevalence among domestic and wild felids, as well as the spatial distribution of genotypes, suggest co-existing domestic and wild T. gondii transmission cycles that likely overlap at the interface of developed and undeveloped lands. Anthropogenic development driving contact between these cycles may increase atypical T. gondii genotypes in domestic cats and facilitate transmission of potentially more pathogenic genotypes to humans, domestic animals, and wildlife.

Oil in the environment: legacies and lessons of the Exxon Valdez oil spill

List of contributors Prologue Acknowledgments A bibliographic note David K. Johnson and Laura R. Rustin List of acronyms Part I. Introduction and Background: 1. Introduction and background John A. Wiens 2. The phases of an oil spill and scientific studies of spill effects Paul D. Boehm, Erich R. Gundlach and David S. Page Part II. Oil in the Environment: 3. Oil in the water column Paul D. Boehm, Jerry M. Neff and David S. Page 4. Surveying oil on the shoreline Edward H. Owens and P. Douglas Reimer 5. Ancient sites and emergency response: cultural resource protection Chris B. Wooley and James C. Haggarty 6. Fate of oil on shorelines David S. Page, Paul D. Boehm, John S. Brown, Erich R. Gundlach and Jerry M. Neff 7. Understanding subsurface contamination using conceptual and mathematical models Gary A. Pope, Kimberly D. Gordon and James R. Bragg 8. Removal of oil from shorelines: biodegradation and bioremediation Ronald M. Atlas and James R. Bragg Part III. Biological Effects: 9. Cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) as a biomarker in oil spill assessments James T. Oris and Aaron P. Roberts 10. Assessing effects and recovery from environmental accidents Keith R. Parker, John A. Wiens, Robert H. Day and Stephen M. Murphy 11. Shoreline biota Erich R. Gundlach, David S. Page, Jerry M. Neff and Paul D. Boehm 12. Oiling effects on pink salmon Ernest L. Brannon, Matthew A. Cronin, Al W. Maki, Larry L. Moulton and Keith R. Parker 13. Pacific herring Walter H. Pearson, Ralph A. Elston, Karen Humphrey and Richard B. Deriso 14. Oil and marine birds in a variable environment John A. Wiens, Robert H. Day and Stephen M. Murphy 15. Sea otters: trying to see the forest for the trees since Exxon Valdez David L. Garshelis and Charles B. Johnson Part IV. Assessing Oil Spill Effects and Ecological Recovery: 16. Characterizing ecological risks, significance, and recovery Mark A. Harwell, John H. Gentile and Keith R. Parker Part V. Conclusions: 17. Science and oil spills: the broad picture John A. Wiens Index.