Scientific Reasoning Skills Research Articles

Evaluation of the effect of in-class activity-based practices on scientific reasoning skills of pre-service science teachers

ABSTRACT The purpose of the current study is to evaluate the development of scientific reasoning skills through activities conducted in the scientific reasoning skills course, which pre-service science teachers take as a required course. Participants (N = 53) are 3rd year students of the Department of Science Teaching. The study employed a mixed research method using quantitative and qualitative methods together. In the quantitative part of the study, the single group pre-test-post-test design was used, and in the qualitative part of the study, the case study design was used. Because of the activities conducted in the study, a significant improvement was observed in the scientific reasoning skills of the pre-service teachers. When the pre-service teachers’ opinions were evaluated, themes including their suggestions on the contributions of the course to them, on the course content and for the improvement of the course were obtained.

Evaluating students’ ability in constructing scientific explanations on chemical phenomena

Evaluation of students’ ability in constructing scientific explanations on scientific phenomena is essential as an effort to obtain information and feedback for innovation in learning process and curriculum development. Unfortunately, this issue is still left unexplored by researchers in chemistry education. Such is presumed to occur due to validated instruments, measurements, analysis techniques, and diverse epistemological values that leave much space to be investigated. Employing a Rasch model, we intended to validate test of ability in constructing scientific explanations on chemical phenomena, examine data fit with the Rasch model, evaluate difference in the students’ ability in constructing scientific explanations, investigate items with different functions, and diagnose causes for difference in item difficulty level. The respondents were 550 students from seven senior high schools in three regencies/cities and 153 university students in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Data were collected by 30 test items; each item consisted of three questions measuring students’ ability in proposing their knowledge (Q1), evidence (Q2), and reasoning (Q3). Their responses were assessed on criteria and analyzed using the Rasch partial credit model. This model applies an individual-centered statistical approach allowing researchers to measure up to item and individual level. Results suggested that data fit the Rasch model measurement. Also, students’ ability in constructing scientific explanations varied significantly. We found no items with different functions, signifying that sex and hometown do not influence students’ ability. However, based on item logit value grouping, it was discovered that item difficulty level also varied among students. This was particularly due to students’ lack of chemistry concepts mastery that lowered their ability and accuracy in constructing scientific explanation. This shows lack of epistemological engagement of students in learning process. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into students’ ability to construct scientific explanations and sheds light on factors that influence their performance in this area. Findings highlight need for targeted interventions that address students’ conceptual understanding and engagement with chemistry concepts, as well as promote critical thinking and scientific reasoning skills. This has important implications for science education and can inform curriculum development and evaluation policies.

When Science Is Taught This Way, Students Become Critical Friends: Setting the Stage for Student Teachers

Effective science education draws on many different ways of teaching science. The literature on science education documents some potential benefits of argumentation instruction as a powerful tool for learning science and maintaining wonder and curiosity in the classroom. Unlike expository teaching, which relies on a teacher-driven pedagogy in which students accept the teacher’s authority over any content to be justified a priori, argumentation teaching allows students to focus on the importance of high-quality evidence for epistemic knowledge, reasoning, and justification. Using a quasi-experimental design, two study groups of undergraduate student teachers were exposed to two different learning conditions, the Exp-group with dialogic argumentation instruction (DAI) and the Ctrl-group with expository instruction. Each group received the same science content twice a week for 12 weeks (2 h per lesson). Pre- and posttests were administered to collect data. One-way MANCOVA with the pretest results as covariates showed that the instructional approaches (Wilk’s Λ = 0.765, p < 0.001) had a significant effect on the tested variables after the intervention. A pairwise comparison of performance indices between the two study groups revealed that the exp-group was better able to evaluate alternative solutions and defend arguments for collaborative consensus on unstructured scientific problems. This suggests that dialogic argumentation instruction can be used to help students improve their scientific reasoning, thinking, and argumentation skills, which are required to solve problems involving scientific phenomena.

The effects of modeling‐based pedagogy on conceptual understanding, scientific reasoning skills, and attitudes towards science of English learners

AbstractThe use of scientific modeling has been shown to be highly effective in the learning of science content in multiple disciplines for non‐English Learners (EL). However, the benefits of using this pedagogy with ELs have not been heavily explored. This article discusses the use of modeling‐based evolution and population ecology pedagogical units in a sheltered biology high school class for ELs. A sheltered EL class is one where only ELs are enrolled and they learn both language and science concurrently. This article specifies the at the scaffolding used to adjust the pedagogy for this unique set of students. The effectiveness of this method was assessed using a convergent mixed method case study design. Data was collected using assessments in content, scientific reasoning and attitudes towards science (i.e., self‐efficacy, fascination, and valuation of science) as well as teacher interviews, and classroom observations. The cases were an EL modeling‐based sheltered biology class, and two non‐EL inquiry‐based biology classes, all at the upper secondary level. The EL modeling cohort achieved posttest comparison content scores that were not significantly different from the non‐EL cohort and significantly higher posttest scientific reasoning scores. The effect sizes in both of these cases were much larger for the EL cohort. The affective assessments demonstrated intriguing results with the EL cohort having a greater fascination with science than the non‐EL cohort but a decline in self‐efficacy. Both cohorts valued science to the same extent. This methodology holds promise in helping to decrease the science gap between ELs and non‐ELs taught with inquiry‐based pedagogies.

The diagnosis of scientific reasoning skills: how teachers’ professional knowledge predicts their diagnostic accuracy

Diagnostic competences of teachers are an essential prerequisite for the individual support of students and, therefore, highly important. There is a substantial amount of research on teachers’ diagnostic competences, mostly operationalized as diagnostic accuracy, and on how diagnostic competences may be influenced by teachers’ professional knowledge base. While this line of research already includes studies on the influence of teachers’ content knowledge (CK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), and pedagogical-psychological knowledge (PK) on the diagnosis of subject-specific knowledge or skills, research on the diagnosis of cross-domain skills (i.e., skills relevant for more than one subject), such as scientific reasoning, is lacking although students’ scientific reasoning skills are regarded as important for multiple school subjects (e.g., biology or physics). This study investigates how the accuracy of pre-service teachers’ diagnosis of scientific reasoning is influenced by teachers’ own scientific reasoning skills (one kind of CK), their topic-specific knowledge (i.e., knowledge about a topic that constitutes the thematic background for teaching scientific reasoning; which is another kind of CK), and their knowledge about the diagnosis of scientific reasoning (one kind of PCK) and whether the relationships between professional knowledge and diagnostic accuracy are similar across subjects. The design of the study was correlational. The participants completed several tests for the kinds of professional knowledge mentioned and questionnaires for several control variables. To ensure sufficient variation in pre-service teachers’ PCK, half of the participants additionally read a text about the diagnosis of scientific reasoning. Afterwards, the participants completed one of two parallel video-based simulations (depicting a biology or physics lesson) measuring diagnostic accuracy. The pre-service teachers’ own scientific reasoning skills (CK) were a statistically significant predictor of diagnostic accuracy, whereas topic-specific knowledge (CK) or knowledge about the diagnosis of scientific reasoning (PCK), as manipulated by the text, were not. Additionally, no statistically significant interactions between subject (biology or physics) and the different kinds of professional knowledge were found. These findings emphasize that not all facets of professional knowledge seem to be equally important for the diagnosis of scientific reasoning skills, but more research is needed to clarify the generality of these findings.

Insights from coherence in students’ scientific reasoning skills

Improving scientific reasoning enables students to navigate the challenges of learning science. Teachers use Lawson's classroom test of scientific reasoning (LCTSR) to measure scientific reasoning. The LCTSR is a two-tiered assessment that uses content-based questions and explanation statements. Researchers have found that if a student answers a knowledge-based question correctly but selects an incorrect explanation statement, there may be an element of guessing or an established misconception. Misconceptions are beliefs that students hold that are not based on scientific evidence. The present study added a confidence variable to the LCTSR, which measures how confident students regarded their responses in both tiers. Selecting a correct response to a knowledge-based question while providing an incorrect explanation and having a high confidence rating indicates an established misconception. The confidence variable is, therefore, a measure of an established scientific misconception and is the basis of the present study. The present study analyzed the responses of 71 first-year university students enrolled in an introductory physics course. The LCTSR results indicate that students performed the best in the conservation reasoning dimension and the worst in the proportional reasoning dimension. In all scientific reasoning dimensions, more than half the students chose the incorrect explanation for each context question. Students' confidence responses surpassed their performance in three of the 14 LCTSR items. The low frequency of correct answers and the statistically significant correlation between LCTSR items and confidence suggest possible misconceptions in students' scientific reasoning skills.

Identify Student’s Scientific Reasoning Skill in Straight Motion Material

Objective: This study aims to identify the level of scientific reasoning skills of students. Method: The type of research used is descriptive quantitative. The subjects of this study were 10th-grade students at 1st State SHS Menganti. The test given is five questions, each of which includes four indicators of scientific reasoning skills: theoretical reasoning, correlational reasoning, proportional reasoning, and probabilistic reasoning. The research method used is a preliminary study through reviews, determining research objectives, developing research instruments, validating instruments, collecting data, and analyzing and interpreting data. Results: The results of the research conducted show that the level of students' scientific reasoning skills in the theoretical reasoning pattern is quite good because they can interpret the existing theory with the data on the problem. Students' scientific reasoning skills in the correlational reasoning pattern still need to improve because only one student can answer questions at level 5. Students' scientific reasoning skills in the proportional reasoning pattern still need to improve because only one student's answer reaches the level 4 Ratio (R). The students' scientific reasoning skills in the probabilistic reasoning pattern still need to improve because only three are at level 3. Novelty: With this research, it is hoped to provide information about the importance of training students' scientific reasoning skills. Scientific reasoning skills are essential and related to science education (not only in scientific contexts but also in everyday life).

The Effects of Project-Based Learning on Students' Scientific Reasoning Abilities and Credibility : A Teachers' Perspective

The purpose of this research paper is to investigate the impact of project-based learning on students' scientific reasoning skills and credence. The study's pre-exam and post-exam model was single group. 40 students from a public-school 8th grade students participated in the study during the spring 2021-2022 school year. The "Scientific Reasoning Exam Skills - SRES" was used to gauge the scientific reasoning abilities of the students before “Life science and Physical Science” course was taught using the research-project based learning approach and the SRES as a final progress check results. The 26 elements in this test are divided into 6 sub-categories Project-based learning is a student-centred approach that promotes active learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving through the exploration of scientific phenomena. This was accomplished in order to have a very solid result which will help schools to re-think in their curriculum design to make it more student-centered rand pee to peer rather than teacher centered. The results of the study's sub-problems can be summarized as follows: according to the sub-categories of proportional thinking, Hypothetical thinking, Probabilistic thinking and correlative thinking a significant difference was found between the SRES pre-exam total scores and post-exam total scores in favor of the pre-exam total scores. According to the sub-dimensions controlling variables and combinational thinking, there was no statistically significant difference in the pre-exam total scores. Between the SRES pre-exam and post-exam total scores of boys and girls students, there was no discernible difference. Only the combinational Thinking and correlative thinking sub-dimension showed a significant difference in the total scores of the SRES sub-dimensions.

Teaching Stereochemistry with Multimedia and Hands-On Models: The Relationship between Students’ Scientific Reasoning Skills and The Effectiveness of Model Type

This paper presents an analysis of the use of multimedia and hands-on models on university students’ understanding of stereochemistry. The relationship between students’ scientific reasoning skills and their understanding of stereochemistry was also determined. Two groups of second-year chemistry students from the State University of Malang taking organic chemistry for the 2020/21 academic year participated in this study. One group of students experienced stereochemistry teaching using multimedia models and the other hands-on models as the learning medium. Lawson’s Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning and Short-Answer Stereochemistry Test were applied. The former was deployed to measure students’ scientific reasoning skills, while the latter was used to test their understanding of stereochemistry. The results revealed that the students’ scientific reasoning skills were significantly below the expected standard, falling in the low category. Students with high scientific reasoning skills exhibited a better understanding of stereochemistry than those with low levels. Both multimedia and hands-on models revealed an equal contribution towards students’ understanding of stereochemistry. Also, it suggests that multimedia models tend to favour students with high scientific reasoning skills, while hands-on models favour those with low skills.

Determining Learning Activities to Promote Scientific Reasoning in Science Learning: A Literature Review

Objective: The objective of this study is to analyze learning activities in science learning that can promote scientific reasoning skills and provide the best way to teach it. Method: The method used is a literature review analyzing 20 articles indexed by the Scopus database from 2017 – 2022. There are 200 articles about teaching scientific reasoning in the Scopus database, and 20 articles that focused on science learning were selected. The 20 articles then analyzed the domain of scientific reasoning and learning activities to train it. Results: The results showed that science learning interventions in practicing scientific reasoning can be carried out starting from secondary to higher education levels. The learning interventions can be designed in face-to-face learning by integrating social science phenomena/cases, conducting guided investigations assisted by modules, and implementing argument-based learning or online learning using mobile apps/online simulations. There is a tendency that investigative activities are the most widely used intervention to promote scientific reasoning skills in science learning. Novelty: This study can provide an overview of science learning activities that promote scientific reasoning so that teachers can design the most appropriate learning activities to train students' scientific reasoning.

Lazy lizards in a drought: Science modeling and English learners

The use of modeling-based instruction is very effective when learning science content in multiple disciplines for native speakers. However, the benefits of using this pedagogy with students learning English as a second language or English Learners (ELs) have not been widespread, especially at the upper secondary level. This article discusses the use of a modeling-based natural selection unit that was developed for 14–16-year-old ELs in a sheltered EL biology class in the United States. The activity described for ELs includes not only activity details but also specifics about the inclusion and use of research-based scaffolding techniques. The efficacy of the unit was assessed in terms of changes to both conceptual understanding and scientific reasoning skills for the ELs and two inquiry-based non-EL biology classrooms. This modeling-based pedagogy allowed the ELs to not only increase their conceptual understanding of evolution but also their reasoning skills while also removing any knowledge gap with their non-EL peers in terms of evolution. The implication is that modeling-based science activities might hold the key to allowing EL students to achieve at the same conceptual levels as their non-EL peers.

The effect of differentiated science module application on the scientific reasoning and scientific process skills of gifted students in a blended learning environment

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to examine the effect of the science module which was designed using the problem-based learning method on the basis of the Integrated Curriculum Model and applied in the blended learning environment on the scientific reasoning and scientific process skills of gifted students. The study was carried out with 9 gifted 5th grade students studying in an institution that provides support education for the gifted in Turkey. The case study method was used in the study which lasted 8 weeks. The science module was implemented in a blended learning environment. Qualitative data were obtained through reflective diaries and semi-structured interview form. In addition to the qualitative method, a single group pre-test post-test experimental design was used as a quantitative method, quantitative data were obtained with the ‘Scientific Process Skills Test’ and ‘Lawson Scientific Reasoning Test’ and analyzed with a statistical program. In the research findings, it was observed that there was a significant difference in favour of the post-test in the pre-test and post-test scores. The students stated that they used reasoning in identifying a problem in the activities, thinking about ways to solve the problem, and developing a design for the solution.

Measuring scientific reasoning in kindergarten and elementary school: validating the Chinese version of the Science-K Inventory

AbstractScientific reasoning is a twenty-first century skill that is important for economic growth and social prosperity. A growing body of research documents that basic scientific reasoning skills develop much earlier than initially assumed, with many young elementary school and even kindergarten-aged children showing emergent scientific reasoning skills. Many studies on early scientific reasoning have been conducted in Western countries, and there is a lack of validated instruments that can be used in cross-cultural work. The present paper reports on the findings of a study assessing the psychometric properties of the shortened Chinese version of the Science-K(indergarten) Inventory (SC-SKI). The SC-SKI consists of 10 items that assess children’s understanding of the nature of science, as well as their experimentation and data interpretation skills. Sixty-nine 6- to 7-year-olds from urban and rural schools in the Hunan province (China) participated in the study. The results showed an acceptable reliability of the SC-SKI (McDonald’s ωt = 0.60). The ability estimates obtained for children’s scientific reasoning (average performance was 47.5% correct) were comparable to those measured in German 6-year-olds (45.1% correct), and the urban sample outperformed the rural sample, supporting the ability of the SC-SKI to detect expected performance differences in young children’s scientific reasoning. A significant correlation between scientific reasoning and language skills (r = 0.54, p &lt; 0.05) confirms earlier findings and indicates construct validity. Taken together, the present study shows that the SC-SKI is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used to measure scientific reasoning in Chinese-speaking 6- to 7-year-olds.

Guided inquiry-based learning in secondary-school chemistry classes: a case study

Guided inquiry-based learning has been shown to be a promising method for science education; however, despite its advantages it is rarely used in chemistry teaching in Hungary. One of the reasons for this is the lack of tried-and-tested inquiry-based teaching materials with detailed guides that teachers can readily use in their classrooms. As part of a four-year research project, new teaching materials were designed to foster scientific reasoning and scientific process skills in chemistry education in Hungary. From these materials, in this study, a guided inquiry-based chemistry task was tested with 9th-grade students (N = 88) who had no previous experience with the method. Before the activity, the students’ mid-term grades were collected, and the Lawson Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning (LCTSR) was administered to describe the sample. During the activity, students worked in groups (n = 21). Data were collected through content analysis of the student worksheets, classroom observations using a rubric, and student questionnaires to explore the learning paths and identify possible obstacles. Our findings support that guided inquiry learning is suitable for students who are new to the method if appropriate scaffolding is given. The data showed the phases of the inquiry cycle in which more guidance is necessary. Formulating hypotheses, recording observations, and evaluating the hypotheses based on the evidence were found to be the most critical steps in the learning process. More than half of the groups disregarded the collected evidence and accepted their original hypotheses, despite their unproven validity, suggesting that they did not understand the true nature of the scientific inquiry. Chemistry grades and the LCTSR scores could not predict reliably the students’ success in solving the inquiry task. The results of the student questionnaire showed that the students enjoyed the inquiry session. They mostly found their work successful, but they overestimated the level of their inquiry skills in some cases.

Laboratory as an Instrument in Improving the Scientific Reasoning Skills of Pre-Service Science Teachers with Different Cognitive Styles

In this study, it was aimed to investigate the effects of guided inquiry learning approach-based laboratory applications on the scientific reasoning skills of pre-service science teachers with different cognitive styles. Additionally, the opinions of pre-service science teachers with different cognitive styles about the effects of the application carried out in the study on the improvement of their scientific reasoning skills were also examined. The sample consisted of five pre-service science teachers studying at a state university in the west of Turkey. In the study, the partially mixed sequential dominant status design, which is a mixed-method research design, was used. The scientific reasoning skills of the participants were determined by using the Classroom Test of Formal Reasoning, and their cognitive styles were identified with the Group Embedded Figures Test. The opinions of the participants were taken through focus group interviews held after the application. As a result of the analysis, it was observed that the participants with field-dependent and field-intermediate cognitive styles achieved more targeted outcomes compared to those with field-independent cognitive styles. The potential relationship of this finding to the use of the guided inquiry learning approach and the hypothetico-deductive reasoning cycle during the applications was analyzed in terms of the concept of information processing, and recommendations were made for researchers.

Revealing the effect of local-based teaching materials toward scientific reasoning, argumentation, and problem-solving in biology classroom

Scientific reasoning, argumentation, and problem-solving are essential skills in 21st century. They help people solve problems in daily life. This study aimed to investigate the effect of local-based teaching materials on student’s argumentation, scientific reasoning, and problem-solving skills using Science Project-based Learning (SPjBL). Argumentation skill is a social and dynamic process, involving individuals engaged in thinking, constructing, and critiquing knowledge in science. Scientific Reasoning skills require students to give reasons in the form of opinion or actions and conclusions by using appropriate language to explain what they think and making judgments or decisions based on the produced reasons or evidence. Problem-Solving skill is a process of designing, evaluating, and implementing a strategy to answer questions. In this study, the time series approach was used as a part of the quasi-experimental design with Science Project-based Learning (SPjBL) as the learning model. A total of 29 Biology students of Universitas Negeri Malang participated in this study in August-November 2019 at the Department of Biology of the university. The data was collected using pre-test and post-test instruments which measured scientific argumentation, scientific reasoning, and Problem-solving skill variables. The data analysis was done using ANCOVA test in SPSS 16.0. The results of this study show that there is positive effects of local-based invertebrate and vertebrate materials on scientific argumentation, scientific reasoning, and problem-solving skills. These findings can be used as reference for educator to gain students’ scientific reasoning, argumentation, and problem-solving skills in science classroom through Science Project-based Learning (SPjBL) with the help of local-based teaching materials.

Scientific reasoning skills predict topic‐specific knowledge after participation in a citizen science project on urban wildlife ecology

AbstractIn citizen science (CS) projects, citizens who are not professional scientists participate in scientific research. Besides serving research purposes, CS projects provide participants opportunities for inquiry‐based learning to promote their topic‐specific knowledge and scientific reasoning skills. Previous research suggests that participants need scientific reasoning skills to engage in scientific activities and to learn from inquiry in CS projects. Participants' scientific reasoning skills, therefore, might enhance the resulting topic‐specific knowledge at the end of a CS project. On the other hand, scientific reasoning skills themselves are a learning outcome of CS projects. Hence, they might play a double role in CS projects: as a learning outcome and as a prerequisite for acquiring knowledge. In the informal education context of CS, it has not yet been investigated whether scientific reasoning skills predict topic‐specific knowledge or vice versa. To address this question, the research presented here used a cross‐lagged panel design in two longitudinal field studies of a CS project on urban wildlife ecology (N = 144 participants). The results indicated that participants' scientific reasoning skills positively influenced their topic‐specific knowledge at the end of the project, but not vice versa. Extending previous research on individual learning outcomes of CS projects, the results showed that inquiry‐based learning in CS projects depends on certain prerequisites, such as participants' proficiency in scientific reasoning. We discuss the implications for future research on inquiry‐based learning in CS projects and for further training of CS participants in acquiring scientific reasoning skills.

Metacognitive Activities Performed by Pre-Service Science Teachers in Scientific Reasoning Skills Teaching with the POE Technique

The aim of this study was to investigate the pre-service teachers’ metacognitive activities occurring in the teaching scientific reasoning skills with the POE technique. The participants of the research included six pre-service science teachers who were seniors in the science education department of at a university in the west of Turkey. The holistic single-case design was used as the research method in this study. The POE Activity Report, an Activity Journal and a Semi-structured Metacognition Observation Form were used to examine the participants’ metacognitive activities. Inductive and comparative analysis was used to. It was found that (i) the pre-service teachers performed various monitoring activities (f = 13) and evaluating activities (f = 4) in the teaching of six different scientific reasoning skills (control of variables, proportional reasoning, correlation reasoning, probability reasoning, combinational reasoning, hypothetical-deductive reasoning) with the POE technique; (ii) there was more variety in metacognitive activities performed by pre-service teachers in teaching of control of variables (f = 15), there was least diversity in the teaching of hypothetical-deductive reasoning skill (f = 10). The results were discussed in line with the related literature, and suggestions were presented regarding the teaching of scientific reasoning skills.

Adapting scientific reasoning instruction to children’s needs: effects on learning processes and learning outcomes

ABSTRACT Scientific reasoning helps children understand the world around them. Teaching scientific reasoning can be challenging because not all component scientific reasoning skills develop at the same age and not all children learn these skills at the same pace. Adaptive support thus seems called for. We designed two types of adaptive instruction, based on children’s standardised test scores (macro-adaptive; n = 58) or their performance in the previous lesson (micro-adaptive; n = 46), and tested their effectiveness against a non-adaptive control condition (n = 49). Analysis of pre- and post-test scores showed comparable improvements in all three instructional conditions. As many children in both adaptive conditions received medium support, additional analyses were done on children in the macro-adaptive condition who received high or low-support worksheets, and their control group counterparts. Learning gains for these groups were similar. Children’s overall task performance during the lessons also improved, and this improvement interacted with condition. These results suggest that more specific information on children’s performance and more frequent and precise adaptations might lead to better learning outcomes. As this was not possible in this study, future research should explore hybrid solutions that enable children to practice scientific reasoning with physical materials while receiving adaptive support via their computers.

Counterfactual Thinking: The Science of Wondering “What If?”

Are you a daydreamer? Where do your daydreams take you? Sometimes you might picture silly things, like your teacher riding on a teeny-tiny tractor (my apologies if you just did). However, some of your daydreams may seem more realistic. Both adults and kids get swept up imagining how things could have turned out differently in their lives. With a little brain power, we invent and investigate new possibilities for what could have been. This type of imagining, called counterfactual thinking, is common and it usually strikes when we are thinking back on our past experiences. Interestingly, applying counterfactual thinking might spur our scientific reasoning skills and help us make smarter decisions. Let us take a look at what we know about counterfactual thinking and why it may be a unique mental superpower!