Science Education Research Articles

AutoML and Automated Data Science by Democratizing AI through End-to-End Automation

The rise of data-driven decision-making has led to a significant demand for data science and machine learning (ML) solutions across industries. However, developing these solutions requires extensive expertise in data preprocessing, feature engineering, model selection, hyperparameter tuning and evaluation. AutoML (Automated Machine Learning) and Automated Data Science (AutoDS) have emerged as transformative approaches that aim to democratize data science by automating the endto-end ML pipeline. This paper explores the foundational concepts of AutoML, highlighting key techniques and algorithms, such as neural architecture search (NAS), hyperparameter optimization and meta-learning. We delve into AutoDS's broader scope, which seeks to fully automate tasks from data acquisition to deployment. Real-world applications, such as predictive modeling, anomaly detection and time series forecasting, are examined to demonstrate the impact of these technologies. Additionally, the paper analyzes the current frameworks and platforms facilitating automation, including Auto-sklearn, Google AutoML and H2O.ai and evaluates their performance across different tasks. While the potential to accelerate data science workflows and make AI accessible to non-experts is evident, challenges remain, particularly regarding transparency, interpretability and ethical considerations in fully automated systems. This research provides insights into current trends, future opportunities and the transformative role of AutoML and AutoDS in driving innovation in the data science landscape.

Evaluation and risk assessment of heavy metals in wetland soil in the University of Lagos

A study was conducted to evaluate the concentration of heavy metals, and the physicochemical and microbiological properties of wetland soils at the University of Lagos. Soil samples were randomly collected from the Faculty of Science (FSC), Lagoon Front, and Distance Learning Institute areas at depths of 5 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm, and 20 cm using a soil auger. The samples were stored in sterile nylon bags, appropriately labelled, and transported to the University of Lagos Central Research Laboratory for chemical analysis. The physicochemical characteristics measured included soil pH, determined using a pH meter, and moisture content, assessed through the oven-drying method. Heavy metal concentrations were analyzed using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Microbial population diversity was examined using the disc diffusion method. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 20, and mean values were evaluated using Tukey’s multiple comparison test at a probability level of P < 0.05. The results revealed that soil pH ranged from 7.20 to 8.81, with the highest value (8.81) recorded near the Faculty of Science (FSC-3). Eight heavy metals, including Pb, Ni, Cr, Cd, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn, were analyzed. Lead concentrations ranged from 0.02 to 0.29 ppm, followed by nickel, which ranged from 0.01 to 0.13 ppm. Chromium ranged from 0.0 to 0.25 ppm, cadmium from 0.03 to 0.08 ppm, iron from 1.02 to 2.96 ppm, copper from 3.31 to 4.60 ppm, manganese from 3.31 to 5.16 ppm, and zinc from 1.67 to 9.17 ppm. Lead and zinc concentrations were found to be below the permissible limit at all locations, while chromium and cadmium were within permissible limits. However, Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe, and Ni exceeded the permissible limits. Correlation analysis revealed a significant correlation (P < 0.05) between Pb and Zn, likely due to effluents from human waste and seepage from nearby dumpsites into the lagoon, streams, or beaches. The isolated microbial flora included three bacterial genera, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus spp, and Enterobacter spp, as well as four fungal genera, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Aspergillus flavus, and Fusarium. Bacterial counts were lower than fungal counts in polluted soils, likely due to the nutrient status of the soil. The isolates were found to be tolerant to slightly alkaline pH and heavy metal pollutants, with microbial variation attributed to the impact of pH and heavy metals on the microbial population.

Problem-Based Learning in Science Education: A Mixed Meta Method Study

A mixed-meta analysis of research on problem-based learning in science education was the goal of this study. In this instance, document analysis utilizing the mixed-meta method—which combines meta-analysis and meta-thematic analysis procedures-was used to investigate both quantitative and qualitative data. Using CMA and MetaWin programs, studies from certain databases that fit predetermined criteria were analyzed for a meta-analysis. Of the 78 studies that were included in the study, the effect size was found to be large, with g = 0.909. It has been suggested that science education benefits from the problem-based learning approach. Within the framework of the established criteria, 15 researches based on document analysis were subjected to a meta-thematic analysis using the Maxqda program in accordance with content analysis. Codes were acquired based on specific topics. By calculating the compliance values of the relevant codes under the relevant themes, a good degree of agreement was found regarding the effects of problem-based learning in science education on academic achievement, the affective-social dimension, 21st century skills, and the negative aspects of problem-based learning in science education. The research results indicate that there is a consensus among the researchers regarding the benefits of using problem-based learning techniques in science education.

Learning to Support Students to Reason Through Talk: How Pedagogically (Dis)Content Teaching Assistants Use a Curriculum Guide Integrated With Professional Development

ABSTRACTGiven the potential impact of introductory science laboratories on postsecondary students' science learning, careful thinking is needed about how to support teaching assistants (TAs) to create opportunities for their students to reason about science. Research suggests that teachers are best positioned to improve their teaching practices when they recognize aspects of pedagogical discontentment and also feel they have the appropriate tools and resources to achieve their teaching goals in the future. This comparative case study examines how TAs who are pedagogically discontent or pedagogically content with their practice of supporting students to reason through talk engaged with a curriculum guide integrated with a weekly professional development (PD) program to grow their teaching practice. We found that only the pedagogically discontent TAs developed their use of ambitious talk moves to support more rigorous discussions over one semester. However, we also found that all TAs used the curriculum guide to plan opportunities for students to reason through talk. This research contributes new understandings about the role of pedagogical discontentment for TA learning of student‐centered teaching practices. This research also has implications for designing TA‐facing curriculum guides integrated with a weekly PD cycle to support TAs to develop teaching practices that support students to reason through talk.

Analysis of Students' Critical Thinking Skills Through the Pakem Learning Model in Science Subject Class VI SD Negeri 78 Palembang

Critical thinking ability is a high-level thinking ability that aims to make reasonable decisions to help the problem solving process actively and skillfully in analyzing, applying and evaluating information obtained or resulting from observations of elementary school students. The learning model is one of the important things in creating an active, creative, effective and enjoyable learning process. The PAKEM model is an appropriate model to use in the learning process. This research aims to determine the critical thinking abilities of class VI students using the PAKEM model in science learning at SD Negeri 78 Palembang. This research uses an experimental method with a quantitative approach. The subjects in this research are 25 VIC class elementary school students. Data collection techniques in this research use observation, tests, interviews and documentation. Data analysis techniques use the normality test, homogeneity test and T-Test. The results of this research found that there were 8 students with high critical thinking skills, with a score range of 85-100, getting a percentage of 32%. Medium critical thinking ability, totaling 12 students, with a score range of 75-80, got a percentage of 48% and low critical thinking ability, totaling 5 students, with a score range of 65-70, got a percentage of 20%. The results of the critical thinking skills of class VIC students using the PAKEM model in science learning at SD Negeri 78 Palembang overall students reached 82.4% in the good category.

A framework for curriculum transformation in quantum information science and technology education

The field of Quantum Information Science and Technology (QIST) is booming. Due to this, many new educational courses and university programs are needed in order to prepare a workforce for the developing industry. Owing to its specialist nature, teaching approaches in this field can easily become disconnected from the substantial degree of science education research which aims to support the best approaches to teaching in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics fields. In order to connect these two communities with a pragmatic and repeatable methodology, we have synthesised this educational research into a decision-tree based theoretical model for the transformation of QIST curricula, intended to provide a didactical perspective for practitioners. The Quantum Curriculum Transformation Framework consists of four steps: (1) choose a topic, (2) choose one or more targeted skills, (3) choose a learning goal and (4) choose a teaching approach that achieves this goal. We show how this can be done using an example curriculum and more specifically quantum teleportation as a basic concept of quantum communication within this curriculum. By approaching curriculum creation and transformation in this way, educational goals and outcomes are more clearly defined which is in the interest of the individual and the industry alike. The framework is intended to structure the narrative of QIST teaching, and with future testing and refinement it will form a basis for further research in the didactics of QIST.

Application and Use of Rhetoric in the Scientific Field of Civic Education

Studying rhetoric means discussing the concept and application of a philosophy of science in a particular scientific field. The philosophy of science is all human thoughts spontaneously respond to every problem in the context of the basic concept of the formation of a science or the relationship between one science and another for the good of mankind In this method to be able to study rhetoric as a use and application in the scientific field of civic education we can use literature study or literature study. A systematic scientific method of literature. In the explanation above, the application of rhetoric in the scientific field of civic education is a form of branch of science that aims to form good and smart citizenship in civic life. So in the delivery of civic education science in delivering learning material can be done by providing logical arguments by showing evidence directly or indirectly to be able to prove scientific Civic education application of rhetoric in scientific midwives Civic education is a branch of the discipline of law and politics packaged in education which aims to form Smart and Good Citizenship. With good, ethical, and emotional delivery supported by the delivery of strong and accurate evidence, and can argue logically in presenting the evidence.

Problem-Based Learning: An Effective Teaching Method for Science Competence Development

Modern society places exceptionally high premiums on science education. To make science classes more productive, researchers and educators have experimented with a plurality of non-traditional instructional approaches that are expected to be effective in fueling students’ interest in science subjects and fostering their scientific reasoning ability and creativity. Among them, problem-based learning has been well received by teachers. Its adoption in science classrooms was first recommended by certain researchers in the 20th century (Gallagher et al., 1995). Problem-based learning enables the student to develop knowledge through analyzing and solving problems, rather than through memorizing a wealth of existing information and theories. It can help the student transition from a passive receptacle of knowledge to an active learner and a problem solver (Akınoğlu & Tandoğan, 2007). Despite there being no conclusive definition of this teaching method, the three features summarized by Akcay (2009) are deemed basic elements of problem-based learning: (i) engaging students as stakeholders in a problem situation; (ii) organizing the curriculum around this holistic problem, enabling student learning in relevant and connected ways; (iii) creating a learning environment in which teachers coach student thinking and guide student inquiry, facilitating deeper levels of understanding.

Pre-service Elementary Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge in Lesson Planning and Post-lesson Reflection Discourses on Science Classes Using Virtual and Augmented Reality Content

Pre-service Elementary Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge in Lesson Planning and Post-lesson Reflection Discourses on Science Classes Using Virtual and Augmented Reality Content

Implementation Learning Based Project To Creativity Study PPKn Class X SMAN 14 Medan

Writing work scientific aim count influence implementation learning with a project focus to improvement creativity Study student in class X at SMAN 14 Medan. Study This started from background behind problem ie exists problem learning happens in the classroom so that hinder the learning process teaching, As for the problem the is students are less open to input where students are reluctant to change bad habits such as picking on friends, being noisy in class and not paying attention to the teacher, then students are less creative in answering questions, the average answer they say and write is the same answer and monotonous, students are less having a sense of responsibility for what is done and no lack of a sense of independence dominates the classroom, where there are only a few students who are able to complete challenges uniquely and uniquely and the rest only look at and follow the answers in book language, so that the answers given tend to be the same. This problem refers to a lack of student creativity because it shows creativity indicators. The low level of student learning creativity means that students are limited in developing themselves, this is because they do not feel the freedom of expression, so solutions must be immediately provided so that learning can take place optimally. Researchers provide a solution in the form of implementing a project-based learning model so that students are free to provide and express unique and unique ideas with supervision and guidance from the teacher. This research uses a quantitative approach with systematic data presentation regarding the assessment of statistical figures which are presented objectively and straightforwardly so that the results obtained are a real picture in the field and not the result of the researcher's subjectivity. The type of research method used is classroom action research or PTK which is carried out in two cycles, where the first cycle is carried out as a solution to problems that have not been resolved in the first cycle. Each cycle is carried out with two meetings. Classroom action research is carried out through four stages, namely the planning stage, action implementation stage, observation and reflection. The subjects in this research were students of class X IKM 5 SMAN 14 Medan with a total of 38 students in one class unit. The results in this research are with results observation about mark creativity Study student so found that's it giving action on the cycle First Not yet find maximum results and not yet passed the graduation limit namely 75%. So that researcher must carry out study cycle second. There are problems that must be solved repaired and found in implementation cycle First is a teacher lacking provide stimulus, too much explanation fast, and giving problem in missing projects concrete so that give rise to interpretation double by participants educate and collaborate group Still in threshold value 55-70 where mark the Still classified to category low value, problems in cycle I create Work The same in group less than optimal and adequate so that must given improvements to the cycle furthermore. exists significant improvement about implementation learning based project to creativity Study PPKn student Where show the average figure was 83% at meetings First with status from not enough become OK, then on to the meeting both also experienced high increase ie of 88% which shows already in category completeness and visibility Work The same in group experience increase Where the average level obtained initially only by 60% increase to 80-85%. So that can concluded that increase the show there is good influence in application of learning models based project in improvement cooperation participant educate in group.

Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Conceptual Integration Understandings in Explaining the Subject of Metabolism with the Concepts of Physics and Chemistry

This study focuses on exploring pre-service science teachers’ conceptual integration understandings in explaining the subject of metabolism with the concepts of physics and chemistry. Action research was employed in this study. Nine pre-service science teachers taking the General Biology II course participated. Participants were taught metabolism considering conceptual integration. Data were collected via paper-and-pencil questionnaire administered before and after the intervention. The results showed that the pre-service science teachers could not understand physics and chemistry concepts at a sufficient level while explaining metabolism. Although the activities and practices were executed for conceptual integration in the action plan, only three participants achieved complete conceptual understanding for better conceptual integration at the end of the course in the first question. Thus, future studies could design interventions to be effective in conceptual integration. Further research could also design experimental investigations to examine how conceptual integration is necessary for establishing the relationship between science and other fields.

The Effect of Using Interactive Learning Media on Science Learning Outcomes of Class IV Students at SD Negeri 136 Palembang

This research aims to determine whether there is an influence of the use of interactive learning media on the science learning outcomes of class VI students at SD Negeri 136 Palembang. This research is a quantitative type using the True Experimental type of experimental research method with a Matching Pretest – Posttest Comparison Group Design. The population of this study were all fourth grade students at SD Negeri 136 Palembang. The sample for this research was students in class IV.A and IV.B with a total of 43 students. The sample selection technique used was simple random sampling. Data collection techniques in this research are observation and tests. Data analysis used the Independent sample T-test. The results of this research show that the average posttest learning outcome score for the experimental class is 78.18 and the control class is 67.62. The results of the t-test calculation of learning outcomes obtained t_count= 2.460 ≥ t_tabel= 1.6829 with a significance level = 0.05. Based on the research results, it can be concluded that there is a significant influence of the use of interactive learning media on the science learning outcomes of class IV students at SD Negeri 136 Palembang.

The Correlation Between Students’ Performance in Mathematics and Physics in Form Six National Examinations 2023 in Selected Schools in Tanzania

This study investigates the correlation between student performance in Mathematics and Physics in Form Six National Examinations in Tanzania. The research adopts a correlational design using a quantitative approach, focusing on ten advanced public secondary schools, with a sample of 100 students who took both subjects in 2023. Regression analysis assessed the relationship between the subjects, with examination results serving as the primary data source. Grades were coded using a standardized scale (A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, D = 4, E = 5), and the analysis revealed a statistically significant moderate positive correlation (r = 0.717) between Mathematics and Physics performance, suggesting that proficiency in Mathematics contributes to success in Physics. The study’s findings align with previous research, highlighting the importance of mathematical skills in understanding Physics concepts. Given the statistically significant results, the study recommends integrating teaching strategies that reinforce the connection between Mathematics and Physics, continuous teacher professional development, and improved resource allocation to enhance student outcomes. While limitations such as the small sample size and reliance on exam results were noted, the research provides valuable insights for educators and policymakers, suggesting that strengthening mathematical competencies can positively impact Physics performance, with implications for improving academic outcomes in science education in Tanzania.

Biopsychosocial Approaches for the Management of Female Chronic Pelvic Pain: A Systematic Review.

Current guidelines recommend biopsychosocial-informed treatment for chronic pelvic pain (CPP). The objective of this systematic review was to describe the available biopsychosocial approaches for the treatment of CPP, and the outcomes reported, to understand how guideline-recommended treatments can be applied. MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Emcare, AMED and Cochrane trial registries were searched (inception to 17 November 2023). CPP Studies in women where the principal treatment modality was a biopsychosocial approach were included. Prospero registration: CRD42022374256. Data extraction included study setting, population, study design, intervention characteristics and outcome measures and is described via a narrative synthesis. The review included 14 RCTs (871 patients) and identified four broad intervention categories (Acceptance Commitment Therapy n = 2, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy n = 6, Mindfulness-based approaches n = 2, and Physiotherapy-based interventions n = 4). Pain science education (PSE) and, exposure/engagement with valued activity were recognised as important aspects of treatment regardless of intervention type. The most utilised outcomes were pain reduction and emotional functioning, with all studies reporting improvements in these domains. Heterogeneity in outcomes prevented efficacy comparison. High risk of bias was identified in six studies (1/4 physiotherapy-based approaches, 2/6 CBT, 1/2 ACT and 2/2 mindfulness-based interventions). CBT and ACT-based biopsychosocial approaches were found effective in reducing pain and improving psychometric outcomes for CPP. Evaluation indicated PSE, and exposure/engagement in valued activity are important components of biopsychosocial management. Outcome heterogeneity needs to be addressed in future trials.

Justice‐centered STEM education with multilingual learners to address societal challenges: A conceptual framework

AbstractWe propose a conceptual framework for STEM education that is centered around justice for minoritized groups. Justice‐centered STEM education engages all students in multiple STEM subjects, including data science and computer science, to explain and design solutions to societal challenges disproportionately impacting minoritized groups. We articulate the affordances of justice‐centered STEM education for one minoritized student group that has been traditionally denied meaningful STEM learning: multilingual learners (MLs). Justice‐centered STEM education with MLs leverages the assets they bring to STEM learning, including their transnational experiences and knowledge as well as their rich repertoire of meaning‐making resources. In this position paper, we propose our conceptual framework to chart a new research agenda on justice‐centered STEM education to address societal challenges with all students, especially MLs. Our conceptual framework incorporates four interrelated components by leveraging the convergence of multiple STEM disciplines to promote justice‐centered STEM education with MLs: (a) societal challenges in science education, (b) justice‐centered data science education, (c) justice‐centered computer science education, and (d) justice‐centered engineering education. The article illustrates our conceptual framework using the case of the COVID‐19 pandemic, which has presented an unprecedented societal challenge but also an unprecedented opportunity to cultivate MLs' assets toward promoting justice in STEM education. Finally, we describe how our conceptual framework establishes the foundation for a new research agenda that addresses increasingly complex, prevalent, and intractable societal challenges disproportionately impacting minoritized groups. We also consider broader issues pertinent to our conceptual framework, including the social and emotional impacts of societal challenges; the growth of science denial and misinformation; and factors associated with politics, ideology, and religion. Justice‐centered STEM education contributes to solving societal challenges that K‐12 students currently face while preparing them to shape a more just society.

Teaching Statistics for the Social Sciences Using Active Learning: A Case Study

US college students are typically required to take at least one mathematics or statistics course, either as part their major area of study, or as a general education requirement. College mathematics requirements are an obstacle for many college students. Active learning, a pedagogical approach that places emphasis on students’ collaborative work, has been shown to increase student learning and course success in STEM fields of study and in mathematics courses. Active learning has also been shown to be adaptable to courses involving computer software and programming, such as introductory statistics. This case study is based on the author’s experience implementing an active learning model in an introductory statistics course for students majoring in sociology and related social sciences. Results indicate that the active learning approach was adaptable to the structure and particular learning goals of the course. Students perceived greater learning relative to other courses despite doing less work outside of class, and attributed this to the active learning structure of the course. These findings align with more systematic studies on the impacts of active learning in science and mathematics courses.

Bee pollination and bee decline: A study about university students’ Knowledge and its educational implication

Abstract Science education plays a crucial role in addressing the pollinator crisis by enhancing knowledge and fostering changes in attitudes toward this environmental challenge. Previous research has been focused on validating a specific instrument related to this subject, although its use for assessing students’ knowledge has been little explored. In the present study, we have evaluated the level of awareness regarding the significance of bees as primary pollinators among students of various disciplines at the Universities of Sevilla, in Spain, and Ouro Preto, in Brazil, emphasizing the importance of the plant–bee interaction. 753 students from the fields of biology, agriculture, and education were invited to complete a questionnaire focused on bee biology. The results indicate that knowledge on the subject is closely linked to professional career choice and that the training program for the future teachers effectively increased comprehension of the crucial role played by bees as main supporters of the ecosystem service of pollination.

Norwegian science teacher educators’ views of the master’s thesis and the supervision process

ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to investigate Norwegian science teacher educators’ views of the master’s thesis and the supervision process in connection with the recent change to five-year master’s programmes. Interviews with fourteen science teacher educators from the seven teacher education institutions offering a master’s specialisation in science education were analysed inductively through thematic analysis. The teacher educators’ perceptions were represented by four themes: development of personal traits, academic competence, value for classroom practice and value for the teaching community. Furthermore, they emphasised being project leaders and having competence in science education and relational competence when supervising master’s theses. The science educators are positive about the general features of the master’s thesis, such as developing personal traits and more research-competent colleagues of teachers. However, the study revealed that many supervisors expressed a lack of competence and supervision experience, and we suggest involving teacher educators in research projects in education.

DEVELOPMENT OF INTERACTIVE SCIENCE LEARNING E-MODULES BASED ON PROJECT BASED LEARNING TO IMPROVE SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS AT ISLAMIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Interactive Science Learning E-Module teaching materials are developed with science process skills. The interactive science learning e-module has the form of software that can be used with the help of a laptop, computer and cellphone. Interactive e-Modules are presented in PDF form, making them easier for educators and students to use, and can be used offline, but there are several menus such as quizzes, learning videos and evaluations that cannot be accessed if you are not connected to the internet. This research is Research and Development (R&D), by applying five ADDIE model stages (analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate). Stage analyze includes analysis of educators and students. The design stage includes preparing the e-module outline in the form of selecting media and e-module formats as well as designing the learning content in the e-module. The development stage includes the development of data collection instruments. The data collection instruments in this research are eligibility sheets for validators and science learning practitioners, as well as pretest and posttest questions for science process skills. This instrument was developed based on review by supervisors, assessments by validator lecturers, science teacher learning practitioners, and trials on students. The implementation stage includes the application of the e-module that has been developed for class IV students at MI Tarbiyatussibyan Banyuwangi. The experimental design used at this stage is one group pretest-posttest. The evaluation stage includes the form of evaluation carried out at each ADDIE stage. The data analysis technique used is the normality test and t test.The research results show that the interactive science learning e-module based on project based learning that was developed is very effective and interesting to use in science learning. The science e-module is effective in improving science process skills because the results of field trials show students' enthusiasm in learning science and students who easily understand science material with the stages of science process skills. Science process skills can also provide innovation to educators in creating enjoyable science learning.

PENGARUH PENGGUNAAN MEDIA AJAR BERBASIS TEKNOLOGI ANIMAKER PADA MATA PELAJARAN IPAS TERHADAP MINAT BELAJAR PADA SISWA SEKOLAH DASAR

: The effect of using technology-based learning media on science subjects. So you can see how strong the influence of technology-based learning media is on increasing students' interest in learning in the learning process. The aim of this research is to determine the effect of using Animaker technology-based teaching media on class 4 students' interest in learning. This type of research uses a quantitative approach with experimental research methods. The method used to find the effect of treatment on the thing being researched. Therefore, in this experimental method there will be special treatment to determine whether or not there is an influence in the research. The method used by researchers is Quasi Experimental design. hypothesis testing, the results of the independent t test show that there are significant differences between the two groups. Levene's Test shows that the variance of the two groups is considered the same (Sig. 0.804). The t-test results show a t-statistic value of 5.298 with 54 degrees of freedom and a significance value of 0.000. The mean difference between the experimental and control groups was 8.964 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 5.572 to 12.356. These results indicate that the use of Animaker teaching media significantly increases students' interest in learning compared to conventional learning methods. It is concluded that there is a significant influence from the use of Animaker technology-based teaching media on students' interest in learning in science and science subjects in class 4 at SDN Grogol Utara 09. Analysis statistics show that there is a significant difference in the post-test results between the experimental group using Animaker and the control group using conventional methods. With the experimental group's average post-test results being slightly higher, this difference is statistically large enough to be declared a significant difference.