Science Content Standards Research Articles

How Early Childhood Preservice Teachers Choose Mathematics and Science Content Standards: The Impact of Classroom Experience and Observation

We aimed to explore how Early Childhood (EC) preservice teachers (PSTs) choose and apply content-specific mathematics and science standards by analyzing two sets of lesson plans and two transcripts from whole class discussions from an EC mathematics and science methods course. From our analyses, we identified major themes and explanatory categories that indicated issues related to PSTs’ standards selection process. Students’ reasoning about their choices illustrated the resiliency of their beliefs about teaching and learning EC mathematics and science, and how their own observation experiences prevailed over our explicit instruction and assignment expectations. Drawing from literature related to Lortie’s (1975) Apprenticeship of Observation, we use our findings to consider ways to better appreciate and mitigate the strength of PSTs’ incoming beliefs on their readiness to plan for and implement lessons.

The undercurrents of neoliberal ethics in science curricula: a critical appraisal

ABSTRACT The world is confronted with wicked environmental problems that cannot be well understood or acted upon without addressing their ethical dimensions. Research shows that official science curricula on environmental science and ecology topics are shaped by the scientific discourse and environmental discourses of ecological modernization and green governmentality. These discourses carry tacit ethical stances that need to be acknowledged and assessed for their suitability in helping us understand and tackle wicked environmental problems. This paper explores the ethical alignments of ecology and environmental science related science content standards in the United States. Our analysis suggests that the intended science curricula in this country appears to support an embedded ethical stance marked by neoliberal utilitarianism and virtue ethics. Further, we highlight the possibility that neoliberal ethical orientations run the risk of frustrating students’ hopes for a sustainable and socioecologically just world.

What influences development of science content standards?

AbstractAlthough 20 states have adopted Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), 24 other states have developed their own K‐12 science standards based on the same National Research Council (NRC) Framework. Understanding what influences content standards developers, realizing the supports and impediments to implementation they foresee, and knowing their rationales for implementing standards is important because these elements potentially affect their contributions and may have repercussions throughout the educational system. Forty‐four developers of one state's NRC Framework‐based science standards indicated the degree to which they were affected by educational system influencers (e.g., accountability), by their beliefs, values, and experiences, and by consideration of others (e.g., administrators). Developers described rationales they think others will have for supporting and being concerned about new science standards and their personal rationales for supporting new science standards. Among results, developers were substantially influenced by considerations of educators interpreting new standards and designing curriculum. Developers' experiences with teaching science and implementing standards weighed considerably more on their minds than considerations about administrators or colleagues. Developers believe new science standards possess tremendous intrinsic value but also believe others will primarily leverage rationales that new science standards are connected to state assessments and accountability as means to obtain teacher buy‐in.

What is motivating middle-school science teachers to teach climate change?

ABSTRACTAdoption of science content standards that include anthropogenic climate change has prompted widespread instruction in climate change for the first time. However, the controversial nature of the topic can be daunting and many teachers share misconceptions that lead to weak treatment of climate change in classrooms. Nevertheless, numerous teachers have embraced the topic and are providing illustrations of deliberate climate change education. In this study we investigated teacher motivation using focus groups with middle school teachers who currently teach climate change. Qualitative analysis of the collective teacher voices yielded underlying motivations. Our findings suggest that these teachers’ interest in environmentalism naturally translates to climate change advocacy and motivates teaching the topic. Their knowledge and expertise gives them confidence to teach it. These teachers see themselves as scientists, therefore their views align with the scientific consensus. They practice authentic scientific research with their students, thus confirming valued characteristics of their scientist identity. Finally, our findings suggest that teaching climate change gives these teachers a sense of hope as they impact the future through their students. This study contrasts with skepticism over the state of climate change education and contributes to an understanding of how climate change education is motivated in teachers.

Secondary Biology Textbooks and National Standards for English Learners

ABSTRACTGiven secondary teachers’ dependence on textbooks for curricular and instructional guidance, the challenges introduced by increasingly diverse classrooms in the United States, and national efforts to provide equitable access to science for all students, this study examined the alignment between three popular high school biology textbooks and the tenets of four national standards. The standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy (the national science content standards when the textbooks were published), The CREDE Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy and Learning, World‐Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) English Language Proficiency Standards, and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study Standards (TIMSS), were chosen as representative of nationally accepted ways of meeting the discipline‐specific content, pedagogical, linguistic, and cognitive needs of English learners (ELs). Descriptive content analysis revealed that the instructional helps (textual tools) found in all three textbooks had some level of alignment with all four standards. However, not all chapters or instructional units included explicit recommendations for teaching ELs, and the overall alignment ranged from low to moderate across textbooks. Equally concerning was that many important instructional recommendations from the standards, particularly those designed to develop and challenge student thinking, were implicit or completely absent. Implications for textbook publishers, textbook adoption committees, teachers, and teacher educators are discussed.

Making Science Accessible to Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

The publication of A Framework for K-12 Science Education (National Research Council, 2012) and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) have created a need for new alternate content standards and alternate assessments in science that are linked to the new general education science standards. This article describes how a consortium of four states used Evidence-Centered Design (Mislevy, Steinberg, & Almond, 2003) and Universal Design for Learning (CAST, 2012) to develop alternate science content standards and assessments. A set of 43 alternate science content standards was created and an alternate assessment at each of three grade spans. Evidence that supports appropriateness of the alternate standards for students with SCD and fidelity of representation of the Framework is presented. One cycle of testlet/item development was conducted. Results of a pilot test (251 items; 1,606 students) are presented. Evidence for validity and accessibility of the alternate assessment is presented. Major findings include that the assessment items met accessibility, bias and sensitivity, and content requirements, and that students were able to understand and respond to assessment items. Data from a pilot assessment provided evidence of the accessibility of the standards and assessments. The implications of this work for teaching science to students with SCD and preliminary efforts to develop supports for teachers are discussed.

Making Science Accessible to Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

The publication of A Framework for K-12 Science Education (National Research Council, 2012) and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) have created a need for new alternate content standards and alternate assessments in science that are linked to the new general education science standards. This article describes how a consortium of four states used Evidence-Centered Design (Mislevy, Steinberg, & Almond, 2003) and Universal Design for Learning (CAST, 2012) to develop alternate science content standards and assessments. A set of 43 alternate science content standards was created and an alternate assessment at each of three grade spans. Evidence that supports appropriateness of the alternate standards for students with SCD and fidelity of representation of the Framework is presented. One cycle of testlet/item development was conducted. Results of a pilot test (251 items; 1,606 students) are presented. Evidence for validity and accessibility of the alternate assessment is presented. Major findings include that the assessment items met accessibility, bias and sensitivity, and content requirements, and that students were able to understand and respond to assessment items. Data from a pilot assessment provided evidence of the accessibility of the standards and assessments. The implications of this work for teaching science to students with SCD and preliminary efforts to develop supports for teachers are discussed.

Creating partnerships between teachers & undergraduates interested in secondary math & science education

During a yearlong program experience, high school teachers and college undergraduates formed three content area partnerships in which they co-planned and implemented lessons aligned to newly adopted math and science content standards. Participants’ within-program experiences and the mentorship that occurred in their developing content area partnerships were explored. Findings suggested that both the high school teachers and undergraduates engaged in mentoring relationships that prompted two-way reflection and colearning. The content area partnerships formed were sustained yet flexible, represented accountability through shared goals, exhibited mutual and equitable sharing, and were transformative as evidenced by practice and identity.

Development of an innovative method for analyzing the presence of environmental sustainability themes and an ecological paradigm in science content standards

An iterative process for developing a method for analyzing Florida's K-12 Next Generation Sunshine State Standards science content was described. For this study, the researchers developed an innovative approach for analyzing the presence of environmental sustainability themes and an ecological paradigm within science content standards. The findings illustrate that detecting ecological thinking within the content standards is a complex and unwieldy process, even when the coders are experts in the content area. Despite this limitation, our expert coders rated the standards document with an overall agreement of 81%. Future research was discussed in terms of how our method could be used to further stakeholders’ understanding about how and to what extent ecological thinking is covered within science content standards.

Enacting FAIR Education: Approaches to Integrating LGBT Content in the K–12 Curriculum

The FAIR Education Act (SB 48) was signed into law in California in July of 2011, amending the Education Code by requiring representation of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons in the social sciences. In this article, the author uses James Banks’ model of the Four Levels of Integration of Multicultural Content to suggest ways in which lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender content could be located in the K–12 curriculum. Examples are provided at each of the levels including topics such as Gertrude Stein, Harvey Milk, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender History Month, the Gay Rights Movement, Don't Ask Don't Tell policy, Matthew Shepard Act, It Gets Better Project, Gay Straight Alliance, and Stop SB 48 campaign, among others. The examples are offered to education boards and others to initiate conversations around ways to appropriately integrate the roles and contributions of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons into the curriculum, emphasizing places where such issues are already latent in social science content standards.

Teaching the Biological Consequences of Alcohol Abuse through an Online Game: Impacts among Secondary Students

A multimedia game was designed to serve as a dual-purpose intervention that aligned with National Science Content Standards, while also conveying knowledge about the consequences of alcohol consumption for a secondary school audience. A tertiary goal was to positively impact adolescents' attitudes toward science through career role-play experiences within the game. In a pretest/delayed posttest design, middle and high school students, both male and female, demonstrated significant gains on measures of content knowledge and attitudes toward science. The best predictors of these outcomes were the players' ratings of the game's usability and satisfaction with the game. The outcomes suggest that game interventions can successfully teach standards-based science content, target age-appropriate health messages, and impact students' attitudes toward science.

Addressing Equity and Diversity with Teachers Though Informal Science Institutions and Teacher Professional Development

This study explores how activities developed by science experts in partnership with middle school teachers were employed and interpreted. The goals of this partnership were to (a) help the science teacher meet earth science content standards in new ways, (b) expose students to ‘real world’ experiences outside their school setting, and (c) positively impact teacher practice by providing a program to be used as a catalyst for future learning. Over 300 sixth graders mostly underrepresented science students attended activities at an aquarium serving an urban West Coast urban context. Science teachers, non-science teachers, scientists, and volunteers were all engaged in pre-trip instruction, professional development opportunities, and follow-up activities as this partnership effort explored ways to enhance local literacy initiatives across the curriculum. Results suggest that teacher beliefs about informal education impacted their view and participation in the program and the level of submersion of teachers in collaboration strongly affects the ability to serve underrepresented students on informal excursions. Implications for teacher education and outreach are discussed.

Using Copy Change With Trade Books to Teach Earth Science

Developing and implementing relevant, challenging, integrative, and exploratory curriculum is critical at all levels of schooling. This article describes one attempt to develop and implement an instance of interdisciplinary curriculum by using copy change with trade books to teach earth science. Specifically, it introduces trade books as a way to integrate science and literacy and address national science and literacy content standards. It also describes using copy change to teach earth science in a fifth‐grade classroom and shares samples of student work that resulted from this engagement. It ends with reflections of the experience and final thoughts for integrating science and literacy at all levels of schooling.

A Missing Link: K-4 Biological Evolution Content Standards

The National Science Education Standards (NSES) is one of the most influential documents in US science education. The NSES has been utilized by local schools and districts, state departments of education, and national curriculum groups to form the backbone for curriculum frameworks, programs, and assessment systems to guide science education. The NSES provides national biological evolution content standards for fifth grade through high school but not for kindergarten through fourth grade. This article presents K-4 biological evolution content standards that can be used in conjunction with the current NSES K-4 life science and earth science content standards, brief examples of integration activities using the K-4 biological evolution content standards, and supplemental teacher information for the K-4 biological evolution content standards. The biological evolution content standards and the additional materials can guide teachers when teaching biological evolution to K-4th grade students.

Teaching Mathematics and Science Standards to Students With Moderate and Severe Developmental Disabilities

This study evaluated strategies to teach secondary math and science content to students with moderate and severe developmental disabilities in a quasiexperimental group design with special education teachers randomly assigned to either the math or the science treatment group. Teachers in the math group implemented four math units representing four of the five national math standards. The science teachers implemented four science units representing three of eight national science content standards. A fourth standard, science as inquiry, was embedded within each of the units. Results showed students made gains in respective content areas. Students who received instruction in math scored higher than students who received instruction in science on the posttest of math skills. Likewise, students who received instruction in science scored higher than students who received instruction in math on the posttest of science vocabulary skills. Limitations and suggestions for future research and practice are discussed.

Teacher candidates’ views of a multi‐user virtual environment (MUVE)

Multi‐user virtual environments (MUVEs) are new to formal educational settings as teaching and learning tools but are growing in popularity. MUVEs simulate real‐world problems. They have an ability to reach students in ways that are familiar as they resemble videogames where players assume roles, work in teams, and gather data. MUVEs include appealing features that allow for real‐time variable manipulation to help reach responses to posed problems. However, are they within beginner teachers’ ability to execute within the classroom? This article documents the experiences of third‐year teacher candidates when immersed in one virtual environment designed at Harvard University to meet national middle school science content standards.

Using sunshine for elementary space science education: A model for IHY scientist–teacher partnerships

An elementary science education professional development partnership between Culver City Unified School District teachers and UCLA has been formed. The project was designed to assist teachers to comfortably present introductory space science concepts, to support them in their efforts, and to aid them in encouraging their students to develop inquiry skills related to space sciences. The project encourages teacher use of observational science techniques in their classrooms, the use of NASA solar mission images and enhanced use of astronomical observation to facilitate discovery learning. The integrated approach of the project has fostered collegial learning activities among the participating teachers and offered them opportunities for continued renewal and professional development of teacher competencies in astronomy and space science. The activities used in the classroom were developed by others, classroom tested, and specifically address National Science Education and California Science Content Standards. These activities have been sustained through on-going collaboration between the scientist and the teachers, a summer Research Experience for Teachers program, and on-going, grade-specific, district-sponsored workshops. Assessment of the value of the program is done by the school district and is used to continuously improve each workshop and program component. Culver City (California) Unified School District is a small urban school district located on the Westside of Los Angeles. This paper describes the program and the plans for incorporating IHY-themed science into the classroom.

Launching learners in science, preK-5: how to design standards-based experiences and engage students in classroom conversations

Preface Acknowledgements About the Authors Part I. Welcome to 'Launching Learners in Science' 1. Origin of 'Launching Learners in Science' Knowing Science Knowing Children and How They Learn Knowing Structures That Facilitate Learning and Teaching Science Changing Emphases Outline of the NSES Science Content Standards I. Unifying Concepts and Processes IIA. Science as Inquiry IIIB. Physical Science Content Standards IIIC. Life Science Standards IVD. Earth and Space Science VE. Science and Technology VIF. Science in Personal and Social Perspective Conversation Starters 2. The Nature of Science What Is the Nature of Science? Science as a Body of Knowledge Sciences as Process Elements of the Scientific Process A Historical Example Science as Process in Elementary School Reviewing the Nature of Science in Elementary Education Conversation Starters 3. Prior Beliefs, Efficacy, and Teaching Science Influence of Experiences and Beliefs on Practice Efficacy Reflecting on the Walls of Teaching Science Getting Around the Walls Wall #1: I Do Not Know Enough Science Content Wall #2: Students Need to Know the Answers Wall #3: I Don't Have Time to Teach Science @all #4: Active Science Lessons Disrupt My Classroom Management Reflecting on Your Own Science Walls Conversations Starters Part II. Construction Ahead! Influences on Learning 4. Maturation and Learning Constructing Knowledge Piaget: The Interaction of Maturation and Experience Assimilation and Accommodation Equilibrium / Disequilibrium Stages of Cogitive Development Conversation Starters 5. Social Interaction and Learning Vygotsky and Social Interaction Language Culture The Teacher's Role: Personal Educator Optimum Learning: The Zone of Proximal Development Identifying Students' Zones of Proximal Development Scaffolding: Stretching Without Pulling The Right Amount of Interaction The Controlling Guide The Dispassionate Guide The Effective Guide Social Interaction With Peers Conversation Starters 6. Active Learning Active Learning: Hands-On, Minds-On The Emotional Side of Active Learning The Ingredients for Active Learning Materials Manipulation Choice Language Adult Support Conversation Starters Part III. Classroom Experiences 7. Key Science Experiences The Key Science Experiences A Wheel of Key Science Experiences Observing Representing Organizing Detecting Patterns and Questioning Experimenting Sharing Putting It All together The Key Science Experiences and Maturation Scaffolding for the Teacher Conversation Starters 8. Thinking Routines Getting In To the Learning in the Classroom Staying Active in the Learning Going Deeper Within the Learning Why Use Thinking Routines? Maturation and Thinking Routines Scaffolding Within Thinking Routines Scaffolding With Language Scaffolding With Tools Scaffolding With the Environment Gathering Your Balloons Conversation Starters 9. Planning Science Workshops What Is a Science Workshop? Whole-Group Instruction Thinking About Creating Workshops A Sample Workshop Unit Scaffolding Within Workshops Scaffolding Content Scaffolding for Student Needs: Differentiation Scaffolding the Key Science Experiences Tips for Getting Started With Workshops Why Workshops? Creating Your Own Workshops -- A Checklist Before a Unit Before a Workshop Conversation Starters Part IV. Science Is a Community Affair 10. Assessment Formative Assessment Features of Formative Assessment Formative Assessment and Motivation Task Orientation and Ego Involment Tools of Formative Assessment Helping Students Self-Assess Questioning as a Type of Formative Assessment Anecdotal Note Taking Student Journals Rubrics Portfolios Summative Assessments The Why of Assessing Conversation Starters 11. Access to Science in a Classroom Science Studios Access to Science Access to Materials Types of Materials Collecting and Organizing Materials Why Is Access to Materials Important? Supporting Students' Work With Materials Access to Science Spaces Physical Space Emotional Safety Adequate Time for Investigation Celebrations of Accomplishments Access to People Support From Teachers Collaboration With Peers Family Involvement Community Resources Access to the World Technology Field Trips The Great Outdoors The Best of Both Worlds: Laboratories and Studios for Children Conversation Starters 12. Connections to Curriculum Your Foundation: The Science Curriculum Study Your District Objectives Plan Units Around the Objectives The Next Layer: Integration Making the Curriculum Your Own Conversation Starters Part V. Resources Resource A: Safety Safety in the Classroom Safety and Active Learning Some Absolute Musts Resource B: Literature Children's Literature References Index

National and State Standards in Science and Their Potential Influence on Undergraduate Science Education

Standards in science and other subjects are a recent phenomenon in education, with most of them having been developed within the past 15 years. In 2002, Kimberly Tanner and Deborah Allen published in the first volume of Cell Biology Education (CBE) an important article about national science education standards for Grades K–12. That article likely provided for many readers of CBE their first glimpse of the standards movement in K–12 education and the potential impact of standards on higher education. The article focused on the two national science standards documents, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS; 1993 ), and the National Science Education Standards, published by the National Research Council (NRC; 1996 ), and what those standards specify about what students should know and be able to do at various grade levels in cell biology. Tanner and Allen (2002) also provided what have turned out to be some prescient ideas and questions about the more general roles of science standards in education in the United States. Much has happened in K–12 education during the past four years and, for the following reasons, an update on the standards movement is warranted. Tanner and Allen reported how the national documents were designed to serve as guidelines for the development of state standards and pointed out some of the issues involved in translating the national standards to state frameworks. In the four years since Tanner and Allen published their article, all states except Iowa have developed their own standards. Indeed, some states are now in a cycle of revising their standards documents. During the past five years, the federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) has become much more a part of the fabric of K–12 education. Most people who are familiar with this legislation identify it with new expectations for testing and accountability. What is less known is that states are also required to align standardized assessments and classroom instruction with their standards documents. To date, students have been tested only in reading and mathematics as part of NCLB. Science will be tested for the first time during the 2007–2008 school year. Thus, science will take on a much greater level of importance in public education in the ensuing years, and this increased attention could have important ramifications for higher education in the sciences. This article addresses all of these issues and also provides readers who may not remember the details from Tanner and Allen with a more general and updated introduction to national and state science standards. It also provides a brief overview of the science content standards movement in the United States, insights into the forces that have caused the adoption of science standards to be contentious in some states, discussion of why college faculty need to learn more about their own state's standards, and the roles that professional scientists might play in shaping those standards in the future. For a more comprehensive recent review of national and state K–12 science standards, see Sunal and Wright (2006) .

An Online, Interactive Approach to Teaching Neuroscience to Adolescents

Most of today's students are skilled in instant messaging, Web browsing, online games, and blogs. These have become part of the social landscape and have changed how we learn and where we learn. The question becomes how to harness the attractiveness and ubiquity of electronic venues toward the goal of teaching neuroscience. At the Rice University Center for Technology in Teaching and Learning, a central focus is the creation of innovative materials that appeal to middle school students. A recent project was undertaken through a Science Education Drug Abuse Partnership Award (R25 DA15063) from the National Institute on Drug Abuse to inform adolescents about the neurobiology of substance abuse and the current research dealing with a class of drugs known as club drugs. Problem-based learning, multimedia pedagogy, and the National Science Content Standards were integrated to produce The Reconstructors, an episodic series available via the World Wide Web at http://reconstructors.rice.edu. A field test of students from five schools assessed the retention of content after "playing" The Reconstructors series titled Nothing to Rave About. Gain scores indicated that middle school students' knowledge about club drugs and the basic neuroscience concepts that explain their effects improved significantly.