School Suspension Research Articles

Correction to: Overrepresentation of Indigenous students in school suspension, exclusion, and enrolment cancellation in Queensland: is there a case for systemic inclusive school reform?

Correction to: Overrepresentation of Indigenous students in school suspension, exclusion, and enrolment cancellation in Queensland: is there a case for systemic inclusive school reform?

Cumulative Racial and Ethnic Disparities Along the School-to-Prison Pipeline

Using the cumulative disadvantage theoretical framework, the current study explores whether school suspension and expulsion provide an indirect path through which race and ethnicity affect the likelihood of experiencing arrest, any incarceration, and long-term incarceration in adulthood. To address these issues, we use data from Waves I, II, and IV of the Add Health survey (N = 14,484), and we employ generalized multilevel structural equation models and parametric regression methods using counterfactual definitions to estimate direct and indirect pathways. We observe that Black (but not Latinx) individuals are consistently more likely than White persons to experience exclusionary school discipline and criminal justice involvement. However, we find a path through which race and Latinx ethnicity indirectly affect the odds of adulthood arrest and incarceration through school discipline. Disparate exposure to school suspension and expulsion experienced by minority youth contributes to racial and ethnic inequalities in justice system involvement. By examining indirect paths to multiple criminal justice consequences along a continuum of punitiveness, this study shows how discipline amplifies cumulative disadvantage during adulthood for Black and, to a lesser extent, Latinx individuals who are disproportionately funneled through the “school-to-prison pipeline.”

Association of atopic dermatitis with delinquent behaviors in US children and adolescents.

Childhood atopic dermatitis (AD) is associated with chronic itch, pain and sleep disturbance, which may predispose children to high-risk behaviors in their school and home environments. We examined the association between AD and delinquent/high-risk behaviors in children and adolescents. Data were analyzed from The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study consisting of 4898 children born in urban cities between 1998 and 2000. A 1-year history of AD was associated with ≥ 75th percentile of mean delinquent behavior scores at age 9 (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) [95% confidence interval] 1.39 [1.14-1.68]), but not age 15 (1.05 [0.86-1.29]). At age 9, a 1-year history of AD was associated with a higher number of delinquent behaviors (adjusted risk ratio [95% CI] 1.12 [1.03-1.23]). AD at ages 5 (aOR [95%CI] 1.31 [1.04-1.64]) and 9 (1.38 [1.14-1.67]) was associated with the highest quartile of mean delinquent behavior scores at ages 9 or 15. Children with AD persisting at multiple age groups had significantly increased odds of ≥ 75th percentile of mean delinquent behavior scores at age 15 (aOR [95%CI] 1.41 [1.09-1.81]). AD was found to be associated with the following delinquent problems: damaging property (aOR [95%CI] 1.38 [1.08-1.77]), cheating on a test (1.62 [1.17-2.26]), fist fight involvement (1.47 [1.21-1.79]) and school suspension (1.36 [1.08-1.71]). This study suggests that childhood AD may precede the onset of delinquent and high-risk behaviors later in childhood and adolescence.

Overrepresentation of Indigenous students in school suspension, exclusion, and enrolment cancellation in Queensland: is there a case for systemic inclusive school reform?

Well-established evidence of the ill-effects of exclusionary school discipline, its disproportionate use on students of colour, and association with the “school-to-prison pipeline” has, in the last decade, led to systemic reforms in the United States, which are successfully reducing exclusion and improving outcomes. Few studies, however, have similarly investigated overrepresentation in Australia, with little attention to systemic reform as a result. In this study, we analysed suspension, exclusion, and enrolment cancellation rates in Queensland (QLD) government schools between 2013 and 2019 and found Indigenous students were consistently overrepresented. Suspension incidents proportionate to enrolments increased for all students, but this increase was faster for Indigenous than non-Indigenous students and driven primarily by steep rises in short suspensions during primary school (Preparatory-6). Exclusions increased—again disproportionately—for Indigenous students, chiefly in secondary school (7–12). During 2019, Physical Misconduct had the highest incident rate for both groups; however, Indigenous students were most overrepresented in suspensions for Disruptive/Disengaged behaviours. Further, while Indigenous students were overrepresented in all QLD regions, one region’s Indigenous suspension rate was higher than all others despite no difference in the distribution of Indigenous/non-Indigenous enrolments across regions. The scale and nature of Indigenous overrepresentation in exclusionary discipline incidents in QLD indicate clear need for further research to secure political commitment to systemic inclusive school reform, as well as to produce high-quality evidence capable of guiding that reform.

Introduction to the Special Issue: exclusion, expulsion and suspension of students with disabilities: advancing knowledge, preventing educational exclusion

The papers in this special issue are at the vanguard of advancing knowledge about school suspensions and exclusions and in establishing a critical evidence base which educational policy and school‐based initiatives can access in efforts to re‐enact meaningful inclusion for some of our most vulnerable students. Hosting and showcasing emerging knowledge in this space is an important role for JORSEN as a journal which promotes educational inclusion. This short editorial offers an overview of the papers included in this special issue and suggests common issues in the important emerging field of research into the educational exclusion and suspension of students with disabilities.

Early childhood predictors of elementary school suspension: An Australian record linkage study

Out-of-school suspension is associated with adverse educational, justice, health, and welfare outcomes. Little research has focussed on suspensions from primary (elementary) school, despite early exclusions representing high-risk events for poor outcomes. This study aimed to identify early life predictors of primary school suspensions in a sample of 34,855 Australian children using linked education, health, child protection, and justice records for children and their parents. Associations between 26 sociodemographic, pregnancy/birth, child, and parent factors (measured prior to 3rd grade) and subsequent suspensions, issued during the 3rd through 6th grades (ages ~8–11 years), were examined in bivariate and multivariable logistic regressions. In the fully adjusted model, 18 factors were associated with suspension, with the largest effects for male gender, child protection services contacts, and aggressive behaviour. Identification of students at risk of early suspension using multi-sector information available at school entry may assist educators and policymakers to deliver preventative interventions.

“Exclusionary Discipline and School Crime: Do Suspensions Make Schools Safer?”

The practice of temporarily removing students from school as a form of punishment (i.e., suspensions) remains quite common. This study uses longitudinal data from a large, urban school district in California to assess whether the use of suspensions improves school safety in the following school year. Additional analyses by student race and ethnicity are included to examine whether disproportionately punishing minority students can be partially justified by a reduction in the school crime rate. The number of student offenders, rather than the number of criminal incidents, is also investigated in relation to school suspensions. In general, the findings demonstrate that changes in suspension rates do not impact school crime rates or the number of student offenders in the following school year. However, increasing suspension rates for violent incidents significantly reduces the minor crime rate. Implications for policy are provided in light of these results.

Associations of school night sleep duration and circadian preference with middle school-aged student attendance, tardiness, and suspension

ObjectivesResearch has associated both school night sleep duration (SNSD) and circadian preference (CP) with middle school-aged students’ attendance and tardiness, but the interaction between these characteristics remains unexplored within this context, along with the impact of SNSD and CP on school suspension likelihood. Thus, this study investigated associations between SNSD, CP, and their interaction with middle school-aged student attendance, tardiness, and suspension, while accounting for sociodemographic characteristics. ParticipantsAbout 4175 students from 12 middle schools in the Madison, Wisconsin, Metropolitan School District. MethodsStudents completed a computer-based, sleep-related survey during class. Students reporting SNSD between 4 and 12 hours were included in the final analytical sample (N = 3860; mean age ± standard deviation = 12.0 ± 0.86 years; range = 10-16 years). CP was characterized using the single-item self-morningness/eveningness question. Linear mixed-effects regression estimated associations of SNSD and CP with tardiness and attendance. Logistic mixed-effects regression assessed associations with school suspension. Fully adjusted multilevel models included sociodemographic covariates, nesting students within schools. ResultsAbout 3860 student responses comprised the final sample, which had a SNSD of 8.15 ± 1.37 hours and general eveningness preference. Short-and-long SNSD associated with lower attendance and increased out-of-school suspension. Greater eveningness preference was negatively associated with attendance and tardiness. No SNSD and CP interactions emerged. Associations between sociodemographic characteristics and attendance, tardiness, and suspension were observed. ConclusionsResults support need for efforts to improve middle school-aged student sleep health and account for eveningness preference. Research clarifying the interactive influence of sleep, circadian, and sociodemographic characteristics on attendance and achievement is warranted.

Impact of COVID-19 on eating habits, sleeping behaviour and physical activity status of final-year medical students in Ankara, Turkey.

The massive increase in COVID-19 cases led to the implementation of nationwide lockdown in Turkey. While enforced lockdown is an effective strategy to abate the transmission of the virus, it causes significant lifestyle changes in every part of the community. This study aims to assess the changes in eating habits, sleeping behaviour and physical activity status of final-year medical students (interns) whose education was suspended during the pandemic. In this cross-sectional epidemiological study, an online questionnaire was created. Interns were asked questions regarding socio-demographic status, eating habits, sleeping behaviour and physical activity status before and during COVID-19 pandemic. Changes in dietary habits and sleep quality were evaluated under the guidance of Turkey Dietary Guidelines, Determination of Nutritional Status Report, Turkey National Nutrition and Health Survey and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine - Ankara, Turkey. Among 536 students, a total of 340 students (63·4 %) answered the questionnaire. After the beginning of lockdown, an increase in BMI was observed in both female (P = 0·002) and male students (P = 0·013). Students having healthy dietary habits increased by 18·8 % and unhealthy dietary habits decreased by 3·2 % during lockdown (P < 0·001). Overall, 63·2 % of students reported a decrease in physical activity, and 33·6 % reported a reduction in sleep quality, whereas 38·6 % reported an improvement in sleep quality. There was no significant difference in sleep quality between genders (P = 0·075). This study indicated that medical school suspension and enforced lockdown led to significant changes in interns' eating behaviour, physical activity and sleeping habits.

How Are They Different? An Exploration of Family and School Factors among Post-Adjudicated Young Women

This study explores the associations between family and school factors, and their relationship to criminal risk among post-adjudicated diverse young women. Cross-sectional data were collected through the Positive Achievement Change Tool using seven measures of family and school factors (n = 365). After controlling for age, this model (Family incarceration, Running away from home, School suspension or Expulsion, Abuse, Neglect and Special education need) emerged as significant predictors of criminal risk (p ≤ .001). However, only family incarceration and special education needs (learning, behavioral or ADHD/ADD) were predictive of higher levels of criminal risk for Black young women while running away from home was predictive for Hispanic young women. Interventions should be gender-specific and culturally responsive in addressing family and school factors that impact diverse young women.

The Impact of Childhood School Suspension on Dropout and Arrest in Adolescence: Disparate Relationships by Race and Adverse Childhood Experiences

Despite its widespread use, school suspension is related to negative outcomes in adolescence, including delinquency and low academic attainment. However, it remains less clear how other sources of adversity affect the relationship between suspension and negative outcomes. Drawing on longitudinal data on a sample of at-risk youth, this study examines the roles of two sources of disadvantage—being a racial minority and experiencing high levels of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)—in the relationships between school suspension in childhood and arrest and high school dropout in adolescence. Results reveal that suspension increased odds of dropout and arrest regardless of race, even after accounting for high ACEs and other covariates. Among Black youth only, the impact of suspension on dropout was amplified for those with high ACE exposure. Findings shed light on the complex connections between sources of adversity and their relation to negative outcomes in adolescence.

Assessing Implementation and Effects Associated with a Comprehensive Framework Designed to Reduce School Violence: A Randomized Controlled Trial

ABSTRACT School safety continues to be a concern in today’s schools, and comprehensive approaches to school safety are one way to address this concern. However, few comprehensive approaches have been rigorously evaluated. To address this gap, we evaluated the implementation and effects associated with Safe Communities Safe Schools (SCSS) comprehensive school safety framework. Forty-six middle schools received SCSS within a staggered randomized implementation design. Implementation data, classroom observations, staff and student perceptions of school climate, student attendance/truancy, suspension rates, and academic test scores indicated that schools implemented some SCSS components as intended. Mixed impacts were found on school climate, student behavior, and academic outcomes. Findings suggest that implementation data highlights barriers to bringing interventions to scale and comprehensive interventions produce changes sequentially. Comprehensive frameworks hold promise for building staff capacity and the necessary infrastructure to reduce school violence – but require engagement and commitment of key staff, and sufficient time for change to occur.

Early adverse childhood experiences and exclusionary discipline in high school

The use of school suspension and expulsion is a widespread phenomenon in American schools (Wallace et al., 2009; Owens and McLanahan, 2020). Yet, much of what we know about these exclusionary practices provide little insight into the personal biographies of the students themselves—specifically their histories of childhood trauma. Using measures of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), we examine the link between early ACEs (up to age 5) and school suspension/expulsion using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (1998–2010) (FFCWS). We find that a child with a cumulative ACE score are almost four times more likely to have been suspended or expelled. Importantly, this negative link persists even when accounting for factors known to be associated with ACEs and school discipline. This work offers new theoretical insight into how we understand discipline in school contexts and suggests the importance of trauma-informed interventions in the American education system.

Giving Voice to Aspirations: Engaging African American Parents With Children With Disabilities

African American children and youth are disproportionately represented in special education, school suspensions, expulsion, and the school-to-prison pipeline. Research indicates that increasing the engagement of African American parents in their child’s education is an indicator of academic success for African American students. This article discusses ways that schools and educators can engage African American parents with children with disabilities in school through a parent aspirational meeting that builds on the aspirations African American parents have for their children while in school and beyond the boundaries of school.

Early school suspensions for children with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Children with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can have difficulty adapting to the school context and may therefore be more likely to be suspended. We examined the association between ACEs and suspensions using linked administrative data on children born in Western Australia from July 2003–June 2004 who attended a government school during 2009–2012 (N = 15,109). During pre-primary to grade 3, 378 children (2.5%) were suspended; 60% of these children had ACEs. Multilevel multinomial logistic regressions revealed that children with early childhood ACEs had around 2-times greater odds of being suspended once or multiple times, compared to children without ACE exposure. Children with school-age ACEs also had greater odds of single or multiple suspensions (1.87-times and 2.92-times greater, respectively). The odds of suspension increased 4–7% with each additional ACE exposure. Results highlight the need for early and intensive wraparound services for children with ACEs, to address the maintaining factors for behavioural issues.

Adolescent Antecedents of Young Adult Homelessness: a Cross-national Path Analysis.

Adolescent and young adult health, development, and behavior lay a foundation for future population health. Increasing rates of young adult homelessness mean there is a need for research which generates evidence to support a stronger focus on population-level prevention. Using longitudinal data from a population-based sample of young adults participating in the cross-nationally matched International Youth Development Study, we examined adolescent antecedents of young adult homelessness in Washington State in the USA and in Victoria, Australia. Participants were surveyed using a modified version of the Communities That Care youth survey. Analyses of prospective, longitudinal data from 1945 participants, recruited as state-representative secondary school samples at grade 7 (average age 13, 2002) and longitudinally compared at young adulthood (average age 25, 2014), showed that young adults in Washington State reported higher rates of past year homelessness (5.24%) compared to those in Victoria (3.25%). Path modeling showed less positive family management strategies at age 13 uniquely increased risk for age 25 homelessness. This effect remained after accounting for age 15 antecedents in peer-group, school, and community environments. Friends' drug use, school suspension, academic failure, and low neighborhood attachment at age 15 mediated the association between less positive family management strategies at age 13 and age 25 homelessness. Despite observing some cross-national differences in levels of family, peer-group, school, and community antecedents, we found that these factors equally increased risk for age 25 homelessness in both states, suggesting similar cross-national influences for young adult homelessness. The findings indicate cross-nationally common adolescent antecedents for young adult homelessness that could be targeted by prevention strategies across international settings.

Problematic Use of Internet-Related Activities and Perceived Weight Stigma in Schoolchildren: A Longitudinal Study Across Different Epidemic Periods of COVID-19 in China.

Background: Social distancing and school suspension due to the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) may have a negative impact on children's behavior and well-being. Problematic smartphone use (PSU), problematic social media use (PSMU) and perceived weight stigma (PWS) are particularly important issues for children, yet we have a poor understanding of how these may have been affected by lockdowns and physical isolation resulting from COVID-19. This research aimed to understand how these psychosocial and behavioral variables may be associated with psychological distress, and how these associations may have changed during the COVID-19 pandemic.Methods: A total of 489 children completed a three-wave longitudinal study from January 2020 to June 2020. The first wave was conducted before the COVID-19 outbreak. The second wave was conducted during the outbreak. The third wave was conducted during post-COVID-19 lockdown. Questionnaires measured psychological distress, PSU, PSMU, and PWS.Results: PSU, PSMU, PWS and psychological distress were all significantly associated with each other. PSU was significantly higher during outbreak. PWS was significantly higher before outbreak. We found an increased association between PSMU and PWS across three waves in all three models. The association between PSU and depression/anxiety decreased across three waves; however, association between PSMU and depression/anxiety increased across three waves.Conclusions: COVID-19 initiated school suspension and associated lockdowns appear to have exacerbated PSU and depression among children. However, PWS was reduced during this period. Children should use smartphones and social media safely and cautiously, and be aware of the potential exposure to weight stigmatization.

Potential Factors Affecting Suspension at K-8 Schools in the United States

&lt;p style="text-align:justify"&gt;Suspension and expulsion are adversely related to negative outcomes of students, such as falling behind academically, an increased risk of absenteeism or dropout from schools. Suspension discrepancy due to ethnicity is evident and well known in the United States. The proper understanding of factors affecting suspension may lead to intervention towards the reduction of suspension episodes in the schools. The aim of this study is to determine how student, parent and school characteristics affect the likelihood of K-8 school students’ suspension in the United States. We analyze the National Household Education Surveys of 2019 with a sample of 9,699 K-8 students to evaluate the risk factors of suspension. The study finds that 6% students receive K-8 school suspensions. Bivariate analysis suggests that gender, ethnicity, poverty, parental education, school type, repeated grades, contacted for behavioral problem and school type are significantly associated with the K-8 students’ suspension. An adjusted analysis of these factors via multiple logistic regression suggests that the odds of suspension of NH-black students are 2.7 times the odds of NH-white students. Odds of suspension for students with parental education below HS is 3.2 (95% CI: 1.77-5.80) compared those with parental education at Graduate or professional level. Likewise, students of public schools have higher odds of suspension compared to private schools. There is significant evidence that students with repeated grades, poor parents, school type and those contacted for behavioral problems have substantially higher odds of suspension.&lt;/p&gt;

Mitigating COVID-19 Transmission in Schools With Digital Contact Tracing.

Precision mitigation of COVID-19 is in pressing need for postpandemic time with the absence of pharmaceutical interventions. In this study, the effectiveness and cost of digital contact tracing (DCT) technology-based on-campus mitigation strategy are studied through epidemic simulations using high-resolution empirical contact networks of teachers and students. Compared with traditional class, grade, and school closure strategies, the DCT-based strategy offers a practical yet much more efficient way of mitigating COVID-19 spreading in the crowded campus. Specifically, the strategy based on DCT can achieve the same level of disease control as rigid school suspensions but with significantly fewer students quarantined. We further explore the necessary conditions to ensure the effectiveness of DCT-based strategy and auxiliary strategies to enhance mitigation effectiveness and make the following recommendation: social distancing should be implemented along with DCT, the adoption rate of DCT devices should be assured, and swift virus tests should be carried out to discover asymptomatic infections and stop their subsequent transmissions. We also argue that primary schools have higher disease transmission risks than high schools and, thereby, should be alerted when considering reopenings.

Examining potential risk factors for early age of nicotine vaping initiation in a sample of Florida youth

Previous research has examined risk factors for nicotine vaping in young adults and older adolescents. Even so, significantly less research has examined risk factors for initiating nicotine vaping in early adolescence. This paper addresses this gap in the literature by examining risk factors for initiating nicotine vaping in a sample of middle- and high-school students. In order to do so, we analyze data from the 2019 cohort of the Florida Youth Substance Abuse Survey (FYSAS). We employ multinomial logistic regression and logistic regression to examine potential risk factors for early age of nicotine vaping initiation. Our findings reveal that early age of nicotine vaping initiation is associated with cigarette use, alcohol use, having substance using peers, lifetime incidence of arrest, and lifetime incidence of school suspension. In conclusion, our findings reveal that early age of nicotine vaping initiation is associated with other forms of risky behavior in adolescence (i.e., substance use, misbehavior leading to arrest and/or school suspension). We discuss the implications of these findings for future research.