School Sport Participation Research Articles

Sports Participation and Physical Education in American Secondary Schools: Current Levels and Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Disparities

The purpose of this study was to determine the current levels of physical education (PE) and sports participation among American secondary school students, and to establish the extent to which they vary by grade level, racial/ethnic background, and socioeconomic status (SES) of the students. Nationally representative data were used from over 500 schools and 54,000 students surveyed in 2003, 2004, and 2005 as part of the Youth, Education, and Society (YES) study and the Monitoring the Future (MTF) study. As part of YES, school administrators completed questionnaires on physical activity (including rates of sports and PE participation) of students in their schools. Students in the same schools completed self-administered questionnaires in the same year as part of MTF, providing individual background data, including their gender, racial/ethnic identification, and parents' education level. Data were analyzed in 2006. Physical education requirements, and actual student participation rates, decline substantially between 8th and 12th grades. About 87% of 8th graders were in schools that required them to take PE, compared to only 20% of 12th graders. Principals estimate that over 90% of 8th graders actually take PE, compared to 34% of 12th graders. Subgroup differences in PE participation rates were small. Only a fraction of all students participate in varsity sports during the school year, with girls participating only slightly less than boys (33% vs 37%). Participation correlates negatively with SES and was lower among black and Hispanic students than white students, even after controlling for other variables. Participation rates in intramural sports were even lower, declined in higher grades, and were lower among low-SES and Hispanic students (after controlling for other variables). Physical education is noticeably lacking in American high schools for all groups. Racial/ethnic minorities and low-SES youth, who are at higher than average risk of being overweight in adolescence, are getting less exercise due to their lower participation in school sports. Disparities in resources available to minorities and lower-SES youth may help explain the differences in participation rates.

Reassessing the Relationship Between High School Sports Participation and Deviance: Evidence of Enduring, Bifurcated Effects

Despite its long-standing popular appeal, the idea that athletic activity is a deterrent to crime and delinquency suffers from a distinct lack of empirical support. This article tests the hypothesis that the relationship between high school sports participation and deviance varies by both type of deviant behavior and level of athletic involvement. The analysis is based upon longitudinal data focusing on the effects of involvement in high school sports, the country's largest institutional setting for youth sports participation, in early adulthood. We find that the relationship between athletic involvement and deviance varies significantly depending upon the deviant behaviors examined. Specifically, we find that shoplifting decreases with sports participation, while drunken driving increases. Moreover, these effects extend further into the life course (age 30) than has been demonstrated in any previous study and hold across all our measures of sports participation. Several potential explanatory mechanisms are evaluated. The implications of these enduring, bifurcated effects are discussed.

Trends in physical activity behaviours and attitudes among South Australian youth between 1985 and 2004

Rising youth obesity is a serious public health concern. There is a widespread view that declining physical activity is contributing to this trend. A total of 929 young South Australians (age=9-15 years) were surveyed in 1985 and 2004 on usual physical activity in several contexts, including attitudes to physical activity. Eight of 10 South Australian schools participating in the 1985 Schools Health and Fitness Survey were revisited in 2004. Comparisons were made on: organised sport, active transport, physical education (PE), playground activity, vigorous physical activity (VPA), total leisure-time physical activity (LTPA), and attitudes to PE and school sport. The questionnaire and method of administration were identical in both surveys. There were no differences between surveys in club and school sport participation, walking to school, and reported enjoyment of PE and school sport. In 2004 fewer children rode to school, but PE classes were more frequent. The percentage of children who 'sit and talk' during school breaks had increased, with a decreased percentage of older girls who 'run around' during school breaks. There was a significantly higher LTPA in MET.min in 2004 for boys, which was particularly evident at higher percentiles. There were no changes in mean or distribution of LTPA for the whole sample or girls. The percentage of respondents reporting >/=3 bouts of VPA in the previous week rose from 51% (1985) to 76% (2004). There is no consistent evidence of declining physical activity among South Australian youth. It is apparent that physical activity in some contexts has declined, while in other contexts levels are the same or higher than in 1985. This underscores the complex nature of physical activity and the influences on this behaviour.

The Effect of High School Sports Participation on the Use of Performance-Enhancing Substances in Young Adulthood

The Effect of High School Sports Participation on the Use of Performance-Enhancing Substances in Young Adulthood

Basketball Battle · Overweight Acceptance · Sleep and Obesity · High School Sports Participation · New Health Education Website

Basketball Battle · Overweight Acceptance · Sleep and Obesity · High School Sports Participation · New Health Education Website

Sports-Related Injuries Among High School Athletes—United States, 2005-06 School Year

Participation in high school sports helps promote a physically active lifestyle. High school sports participation has grown from an estimated 4 million participants during the 1971-72 school year to an estimated 7.2 million in 2005-06. However, despite the documented health benefits of increased physical activity (e.g., weight management, improved self-esteem, and increased strength, endurance, and flexibility), those who participate in athletics are at risk for sports-related injuries. High school athletes account for an estimated 2 million injuries, 500,000 doctor visits, and 30,000 hospitalizations annually. To date, the study of these injuries has been limited by inabilities to calculate injury rates, compare results among groups, and generalize findings from small, nonrepresentative samples. During the 2005-06 school year, researchers at a children's hospital in Ohio used an Internet-based data-collection tool to pilot an injury surveillance system among athletes from a representative national sample of U.S. high schools. This report summarizes the findings of that study, which indicated that participation in high school sports resulted in an estimated 1.4 million injuries at a rate of 2.4 injuries per 1,000 athlete exposures (i.e., practices or competitions). Surveillance of exposure-based injury rates in a nationally representative sample of high school athletes and analysis of injury patterns can help guide activities aimed at reducing these injuries.

Engaging adolescent girls in school sport (a feasibility study)

Aim: The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy of a school-based physical activity program delivered during programmed school sport time and designed to meet the needs and interests of adolescent girls, as well as function effectively within the constraints of the school environment. Methodology: 38 adolescent girls (Year 11) were recruited to participate in the program as either intervention (n=17) or control group (n=21) participants. The intervention program aimed at increasing physical activity by improving enjoyment, physical self-perception and perceived competence. Baseline and follow-up (11 weeks) assessments included enjoyment of physical activity (PACES), physical self-perception (PSPP), and physical activity (accelerometers). The study also contained qualitative data collection to formulate the intervention design and quantitative data to allow for greater understanding of the needs and wants of adolescent girls with regard to their school sport programs. This qualitative data was collected through focus group interviews, observations, and teacher/student commentary. Results: The results were reported in terms of comparison between intervention and control groups based on the analysis of data from each of the collection instruments. Results also contain a discussion on the formative qualitative data. Conclusions: Data highlights major barriers confronting adolescent girls’ participation in school sport. Some of these include teacher attitudes and support, activities and i programming, purpose and distinction, and student input. Negotiating these barriers and overcoming them in a school setting appears feasible with support from the entire school community. Furthermore, the study showed that the intervention was able to achieve a positive medium effect on enjoyment of physical activity and perceived body image (0.42 and 0.50 respectively, using Cohen’s d). A novel finding of this research was a slowing in the decline of physical activity even though intervention and control groups were engaged in programs with significantly different estimated rates of energy expenditure. Intervention and control group mean energy expenditure was 4.25 and 6.2 respectively indicating that future physical activity interventions should focus on interest and enjoyment rather than programming for increased levels of intensity.

Re-Examining the Relationship between Interscholastic Sport Participation and Delinquency: Type of Sport Matters

For years it has been commonly held by the public and by policy makers that youth sport participation can serve as an agent of social control. At the school level, this relationship has been examined in terms of numerous psychosocial and behavioral outcomes. Research on one such outcome - delinquency - has resulted in mixed findings. To better understand this association and perhaps arrive at more conclusive findings, the present study utilizes nationally representative data (NELS: 88) to conduct a more in-depth analysis of the relationship between school sport participation and delinquency. We present findings from a systematic analysis of engagement in delinquency that 1) controls for race, gender, and SES, 2) takes into account important factors representing components of Hirschi's (1969) social control theory found both inherent in sport participation and external to it, and 3) compares different delinquency outcomes for different types of sport. Results confirm the complexity of the sports—delinquency relationship, as both the direct and mediating effects of social control vary by type of sport.

The Effect of High School Sports Participation on the Use of Performance-Enhancing Substances in Young Adulthood

Purpose The present study examined the relationship between high school sports participation and the use of anabolic steroids (AS) and legal performance-enhancing dietary supplements in young adulthood. Additionally, the relationship between the use of AS and legal dietary supplements was explored. Methods Data on approximately 15,000 adolescents from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were used. School sports participation was assessed when adolescents were in grades 7–12. AS use and legal performance-enhancing dietary supplement use were assessed six years later. Results Males were more likely than females to use AS and legal supplements. A sport by gender interaction emerged for the use of AS, indicating that the gender differences in AS use were greater for those who participated in sports during high school. High school sports participation was associated with increased likelihood that adolescents would use legal supplements in young adulthood. Finally, there was a positive relationship between the use of legal dietary supplements and AS use. Conclusions This study highlights the important role that the social environment during adolescence has on future health behaviors. Results suggest that the sporting context experienced during early adolescence may have lasting effects on the use of performance-enhancing substances. The use of legal performance-enhancing dietary supplements appears to be more prevalent than the use of AS, and there seems to be a positive relationship between the use of AS and legal performance-enhancing dietary supplements.

Dating Aggression, Sexual Coercion, and Aggression-Supporting Attitudes Among College Men as a Function of Participation in Aggressive High School Sports

Aggressive male sports have been criticized as bastions of sexism and training grounds for aggression against women, but there have been few empirical demonstrations of these alleged relationships. The authors studied self-reported dating aggression and sexual coercion in 147 college men. Men who had participated in aggressive high school sports, as compared with other men, engaged in more psychological aggression, physical aggression, and sexual coercion toward their dating partners, caused their partners more physical injury, were more accepting of violence, had more sexist attitudes and hostility toward women, were more accepting of rape myths, and were less tolerant of homosexuality. Results indicate that participation in aggressive high school sports is one of the multiple developmental pathways leading to relationship violence.

Physical Activity Influences Body Composition, Inflammatory Mediators, Growth Factors and Bone Development in BMI-Matched Female Adolescents

Despite widespread evidence that physical activity improves a variety of lifelong health outcomes, it has been difficult to distinguish the effect of physical activity from that of body composition on circulating inflammatory mediators and anatomical features such as bone mineral density (BMD) in healthy growing adolescents. We matched adolescent girls by age, maturity and BMI to explore inflammatory mediators and BMD differences associated with participation in high school sport. PURPOSE: To determine if participation in high school sports programs influence pro/anti-inflammatory markers, body composition, bone density and growth mediators in adolescent females. METHODS: Non-obese sedentary (n=39) and physic ally-active (i.e. sport participants, n=39) adolescent females were matched for age (mean=15.5 yrs), maturity (Tanner=4-5) and BMI (mean=21.75). Comparisons were made between fitness level, body composition, bone mineralization and circulating levels of inflammatory cytokines, growth mediators, and bone turnover markers. Participants were healthy adolescent girls recruited from 2 Southern California high schools. Activity and fitness level were assessed using a 3-day Physical Activity Recall, DEXA and ramp-type progressive exercise test on cycle ergometer. Blood samples were obtained following overnight fast using standard phlebotomy. Comparisons were made using unpaired t-tests on variables of interest (significance set at p <0.05) reported as mean ±SEM. RESULTS: Compared to sedentary adolescent females, the active girls had significantly higher fitness levels (VO2max ml/min/kg) 36 ±1 vs 23 ±1; lean body mass (kg)43.4±0.7vs 39.2 ± 0.7; and whole body bone mineral density (g/cm2) 0.99 ± 0.02 vs 0.95 ±0.01(active vs sedentary p <0.05). Additionally, physically active girls had favorable levels of growth and bone development markers Osteocalcin (ng/ml) 12.54±1.2vs7.68±0.5;BSAP(U/L)59.5±2.7vs41.6±2.7;Adiponectin(ng/ml) 12,154 ± 600 vs 9,081 ± 470; and Leptin (ng/ml) 17.7 ± 1.8 vs 26.29 ± 2.6; as well as pro and anti-inflammatory balance IL6 (pg/ml) 1.21 ± 0.2 vs 1.91 ± 0.3; IL1ra (pg/ml) 341.7 ± 19.4 vs 467.7 ± 53.9; and TNFα (pg/ml) 1.65 ± 0.2 vs 2.51 ± 0.3. CONCLUSION: Despite matching adolescent girls for BMI and age, physical activity was associated with favorable physiological measures of body composition, bone density and circulating inflammatory markers. BMI alone does not appear to be an adequate measure of inflammatory status of physically active and inactive adolescent girls.

Untangling the Links among Athletic Involvement, Gender, Race, and Adolescent Academic Outcomes

Although previous research has established that high school sports participation may be associated with positive academic outcomes, the parameters of the relationship remain unclear. Using a longitudinal sample of nearly 600 Western New York adolescents, this study examined gender- and race-specific differences in the impact of two dimensions of adolescent athletic involvement ("jock" identity and athlete status) on changes in school grades and school misconduct over a two-year interval. Female and black adolescents who identified themselves as "jocks" reported lower grades than those who did not, whereas female athletes reported higher grades than female nonathletes. Jocks also reported significantly more misconduct (including skipping school, cutting classes, having someone from home called to the school for disciplinary purposes, and being sent to the principal's office) than nonjocks. Gender moderated the relationship between athlete status and school misconduct; athletic participation had a less salutary effect on misconduct for girls than for boys.

Contribution Of Biological Maturation And Sport Participation To 1-mile Walk Run Performance In High School Males

PURPOSE To investigate the relation of biological maturation (BM) and school sports participation (SSP) to estimated cardiovascular fitness using the 1-mile walk run (MWR) in high school boys (13–18 yrs). METHODS One-hundred and forty-two boys (16.0±1.3 yrs) were assessed for BM, SSP, and cardiovascular fitness. Biological maturity was determine by calculating the number of years from peak height velocity (PHV) using the formula developed by Mirwald et al. (2002) which calculates PHV from anthropometric measurements (standing and sitting height, body weight, and age). Sports participation was the number of SSP (0 to +6) over the past 12 months. Cardiovascular fitness was estimated from MRW performance (time in seconds to complete). A stepwise linear regression model was constructed to determine the effect of PHV and SSP on MRW performance (dependent variable). Variables entered into the model were PHV, number of SSP, height, and weight. RESULTS The greatest variance in MRW performance was the number of SSP (R2 = 16.2%, p <0.001), followed by weight (R2 = 9.2%, p<0.001), and PHV (R2 = 5.0%; p = 0.057). Total adjusted variance explain by the three variable was R2= 28.9%). CONCLUSION When examining cardiovascular fitness of male adolescents, BM and activity level are considered to have the largest influence in cardiovascular fitness. However, studies have yet to examine these variables concurrently. In this study, activity level was defined by SSP. The contribution of maturation (i.e., PHV), while significant, explained a minimal amount of variance in MRW performance. Conversely, sport participation accounted for the largest proportion of variance in MRW performance. For high school boys, sport participation may serve an important public health purpose by increasing activity levels and improve health related fitness.

Contribution Of Biological Maturation And Sport Participation To 1-mile Walk Run Performance In High School Males

PURPOSE To investigate the relation of biological maturation (BM) and school sports participation (SSP) to estimated cardiovascular fitness using the 1-mile walk run (MWR) in high school boys (13–18 yrs). METHODS One-hundred and forty-two boys (16.0±1.3 yrs) were assessed for BM, SSP, and cardiovascular fitness. Biological maturity was determine by calculating the number of years from peak height velocity (PHV) using the formula developed by Mirwald et al. (2002) which calculates PHV from anthropometric measurements (standing and sitting height, body weight, and age). Sports participation was the number of SSP (0 to +6) over the past 12 months. Cardiovascular fitness was estimated from MRW performance (time in seconds to complete). A stepwise linear regression model was constructed to determine the effect of PHV and SSP on MRW performance (dependent variable). Variables entered into the model were PHV, number of SSP, height, and weight. RESULTS The greatest variance in MRW performance was the number of SSP (R2 = 16.2%, p <0.001), followed by weight (R2 = 9.2%, p<0.001), and PHV (R2 = 5.0%; p = 0.057). Total adjusted variance explain by the three variable was R2= 28.9%). CONCLUSION When examining cardiovascular fitness of male adolescents, BM and activity level are considered to have the largest influence in cardiovascular fitness. However, studies have yet to examine these variables concurrently. In this study, activity level was defined by SSP. The contribution of maturation (i.e., PHV), while significant, explained a minimal amount of variance in MRW performance. Conversely, sport participation accounted for the largest proportion of variance in MRW performance. For high school boys, sport participation may serve an important public health purpose by increasing activity levels and improve health related fitness.

Past Year Sport Participation, Not Current Physical Activity, Is Associated With Fitness Level In Urban Adolescent Girls

Purpose It has been shown that physical activity levels decline during adolescence for black and white girls. Baseline data from a trial designed to increase physical activity in high school girls were used to describe previous sport participation and current physical activity behavior and fitness level. Methods Measures included a 3-stage aerobic step test, a 7-day physical activity recall to estimate daily energy expenditure, heart rate and accelerometer monitoring, and sport participation questions from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey. At the time of data collection, the sport participation measure determined participation in the 8th grade school year, and the 7-day recall measured current physical activity level in the 9th grade. Results Participants' fitness level was classified into 4 stages. Fourteen percent of participants completed stage 1 (unfit), 28% completed stage 2 (low fit), 27% completed stage 3 reaching target heart rate (THR) (fit), and 31% completed stage 3 without reaching THR (high fit). Over half the sample (52.5%) reported no organized sport participation in the past 12 months; 17.6% had participated in at least one community sport, 12.2% had participated in at least one school sport, and 17.6% had participated in a community sport and in a school sport. School sport participation was related to fitness category in the expected direction χ2=10.65, p=0.014). One-way ANOVA tests showed no significant difference in daily energy expenditure across fitness categories. Time spent in physical activity was broken down into 5 weekday time periods and 3 weekend time periods; of these 8 time periods, the only difference in activity level was between the low-fit and high-fit groups on weekday evenings (±SD=0.34 ± 0.59, 1.04 ± 1.7 hours per week, respectively, p=0.02). However, according to the heart rate monitoring data, the low-fit group spent significantly more time (mean ± SE=2.9 ± 0.38%) with heart rates above 124 beats per minute than the fit and high-fit groups (1.7 ± 0.37%, 1.6 ± 0.38% respectively, p<0.03). Conclusions It is possible that these cross-sectional data show some fitness carryover from past year sport participation and physical activity level, while the current physical activity level was very low. Further, it is hypothesized that the low-fit group was sufficiently low in cardiorespiratory fitness to elicit “exercise” heart rates while performing activities of daily living usually considered light activity. Based on the current activity level, a decline in fitness level over time is expected in this population. Supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Grant R01 HL63861

Past Year Sport Participation, Not Current Physical Activity, Is Associated With Fitness Level In Urban Adolescent Girls

Purpose It has been shown that physical activity levels decline during adolescence for black and white girls. Baseline data from a trial designed to increase physical activity in high school girls were used to describe previous sport participation and current physical activity behavior and fitness level. Methods Measures included a 3-stage aerobic step test, a 7-day physical activity recall to estimate daily energy expenditure, heart rate and accelerometer monitoring, and sport participation questions from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey. At the time of data collection, the sport participation measure determined participation in the 8th grade school year, and the 7-day recall measured current physical activity level in the 9th grade. Results Participants' fitness level was classified into 4 stages. Fourteen percent of participants completed stage 1 (unfit), 28% completed stage 2 (low fit), 27% completed stage 3 reaching target heart rate (THR) (fit), and 31% completed stage 3 without reaching THR (high fit). Over half the sample (52.5%) reported no organized sport participation in the past 12 months; 17.6% had participated in at least one community sport, 12.2% had participated in at least one school sport, and 17.6% had participated in a community sport and in a school sport. School sport participation was related to fitness category in the expected direction χ2=10.65, p=0.014). One-way ANOVA tests showed no significant difference in daily energy expenditure across fitness categories. Time spent in physical activity was broken down into 5 weekday time periods and 3 weekend time periods; of these 8 time periods, the only difference in activity level was between the low-fit and high-fit groups on weekday evenings (±SD=0.34 ± 0.59, 1.04 ± 1.7 hours per week, respectively, p=0.02). However, according to the heart rate monitoring data, the low-fit group spent significantly more time (mean ± SE=2.9 ± 0.38%) with heart rates above 124 beats per minute than the fit and high-fit groups (1.7 ± 0.37%, 1.6 ± 0.38% respectively, p<0.03). Conclusions It is possible that these cross-sectional data show some fitness carryover from past year sport participation and physical activity level, while the current physical activity level was very low. Further, it is hypothesized that the low-fit group was sufficiently low in cardiorespiratory fitness to elicit “exercise” heart rates while performing activities of daily living usually considered light activity. Based on the current activity level, a decline in fitness level over time is expected in this population. Supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Grant R01 HL63861

Medical Screening of the Athlete: How Does Asthma Fit In?

There are 4 million high school athletes in the United States, and there are 30 million athletes under age 18 yr competing in organized sports. The prevalence number of emergency room visits and deaths from asthma are significant. Medical clearance is required by all states for participation in high school sports. This article discusses the issues regarding the medical screening of the athlete and how asthma fits into the process. The preparticipation sports physical is an overlooked and underutilized opportunity to improve asthma diagnosis and management in adolescents.

The Effect of Adolescent Experience on Labor Market Outcomes: The Case of Height

Taller workers receive a wage premium. Net of differences in family background, the disparity is similar in magnitude to the race and gender gaps. We exploit variation in an individual’s height over time to explore how height affects wages. Controlling for teen height essentially eliminates the effect of adult height on wages for white men. The teen height premium is not explained by differences in resources or endowments. The teen height premium is partially mediated through participation in high school sports and clubs. We estimate the monetary benefits of a medical treatment for children that increases height.

The Effect of Adolescent Experience on Labor Market Outcomes: The Case of Height, Third Version

Taller workers receive a wage premium. Net of differences in family background, the disparity is similar in magnitude to the race and gender gaps. We exploit variation in an individual's height over time to explore how height affects wages. Controlling for teen height essentially eliminates the effect of adult height on wages for white males. The teen height premium is not explained by differences in resources or endowments. The teen height premium is partly mediated through participation in high school sports and clubs. We estimate the monetary benefits of a medical treatment for children that increases height.

Correlation between backpack weight and way of carrying, sagittal and frontal spinal curvatures, athletic activity, and dorsal and low back pain in schoolchildren and adolescents.

This cross-sectional study was carried out to investigate any correlation between backpack carrying, spinal curvatures, and athletic activities on schoolchildren's dorsal (DP) and low back pain (LBP). Three thousand four hundred forty-one students aged from 9 to 15 years who carried backpacks to school were included in this study and asked for DP and LBP experiences in the school period while carrying the backpack. Nonradiating methods (surface back contour analysis) were used to indirectly measure frontal spinal curve (scoliosis) with the scoliometer and lateral curves (thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis) with the kyphometer. All data analyses were undertaken regarding school year level, age, gender, sports participation, backpack weight, and way of carrying (one versus both shoulder) in relation to magnitude of scoliosis, thoracic kyphosis, lumbar lordosis, and DP and LBP while carrying the backpack. DP increased with increasing backpack weight (P < 0.05). The way (one versus both shoulder) of backpack carrying did not correlate either with DP or with LBP. Girls experienced much more LBP and DP than boys (P < 0.001). There was no difference in the prevalence of LBP and DP between adolescents and children. Students' age, height, and body weight as well as magnitude of kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis did not correlate with either LBP or DP. At the age of 11 years, girls and boys showed the highest prevalence for DP (72% and 38.5%, respectively), while at the age of 14 years, girls reported significantly (P < 0.05) more DP than boys. Girls showed the highest prevalence of LBP (71%) at the age of 11 years, while for the boys, it was at the age of 15 years (21%). Girls showed at the age of 11 years significantly more LBP (P < 0.05) than boys. Sports exposure seemed to increase LBP in girls (P < 0.001). The results of this study suggest a differential DP and LBP prevalence in schoolchildren and adolescents carrying backpacks with regard to gender and age. The peak in pain prevalence was immediately before puberty as well as immediately after its onset. Girls who participated in sports activities seem to experience more often DP and LBP than boys. Short children who carry backpacks as heavy as do tall children at the same age are more prone to LBP.