School-level Characteristics Research Articles

Characteristics and practices of school-based cluster randomised controlled trials for improving health outcomes in pupils in the United Kingdom: a methodological systematic review

BackgroundCluster randomised trials (CRTs) are increasingly used to evaluate non-pharmacological interventions for improving child health. Although methodological challenges of CRTs are well documented, the characteristics of school-based CRTs with pupil health outcomes have not been systematically described. Our objective was to describe methodological characteristics of these studies in the United Kingdom (UK).MethodsMEDLINE was systematically searched from inception to 30th June 2020. Included studies used the CRT design in schools and measured primary outcomes on pupils. Study characteristics were described using descriptive statistics.ResultsOf 3138 articles identified, 64 were included. CRTs with pupil health outcomes have been increasingly used in the UK school setting since the earliest included paper was published in 1993; 37 (58%) studies were published after 2010. Of the 44 studies that reported information, 93% included state-funded schools. Thirty six (56%) were exclusively in primary schools and 24 (38%) exclusively in secondary schools. Schools were randomised in 56 studies, classrooms in 6 studies, and year groups in 2 studies. Eighty percent of studies used restricted randomisation to balance cluster-level characteristics between trial arms, but few provided justification for their choice of balancing factors. Interventions covered 11 different health areas; 53 (83%) included components that were necessarily administered to entire clusters. The median (interquartile range) number of clusters and pupils recruited was 31.5 (21 to 50) and 1308 (604 to 3201), respectively. In half the studies, at least one cluster dropped out. Only 26 (41%) studies reported the intra-cluster correlation coefficient (ICC) of the primary outcome from the analysis; this was often markedly different to the assumed ICC in the sample size calculation. The median (range) ICC for school clusters was 0.028 (0.0005 to 0.21).ConclusionsThe increasing pool of school-based CRTs examining pupil health outcomes provides methodological knowledge and highlights design challenges. Data from these studies should be used to identify the best school-level characteristics for balancing the randomisation. Better information on the ICC of pupil health outcomes is required to aid the planning of future CRTs. Improved reporting of the recruitment process will help to identify barriers to obtaining representative samples of schools.

Strength and Comprehensiveness of Drinking Water Language in California School District Wellness Policies

Objective(s)Assess the quality of water language in California school district wellness policies and examine how language quality relates to school drinking water access. DesignCross-sectional study. ParticipantsRandom sample of 240 schools selected from all California public schools, stratified by geography and grades served. Variables MeasuredPolicies (2016–2018) were coded for quality (strength and comprehensiveness) using an adapted school wellness policy tool. School administrators completed phone interviews about drinking water access on their campus. AnalysisDescriptive statistics (eg, means, standard deviations) summarized school-level characteristics and main outcomes. Mixed-effects linear regression models were used to examine the relationship between the strength and comprehensiveness of water policy language and water access. ResultsOn a scale of 0–100, mean strength was 11.3 (SD, 5.7), and mean comprehensiveness was 28.8 (SD, 8.7). There was an inverse association between the quality of water language in policies and excellence in drinking water access in schools. Conclusions and ImplicationsThe strength and comprehensiveness of water language in California school district wellness policies were low. Districts would benefit from improving the quality of water language in their wellness policies and examining challenges to implementing policies.

Associations between elementary and middle school teachers\u2019 physical activity promoting practices and teacher- and school-level factors

BackgroundFew studies have evaluated teacher- and school-level characteristics associated with implementation of recommended physical activity (PA) promoting practices. The purpose of this study is to examine associations between teachers’ PA practices and: [1] teacher-level factors, including their own PA, and [2] school-level factors.MethodsThis cross-sectional study examined time spent daily in light PA (LPA) and moderate-vigorous PA (MVPA) in association with 7 teacher PA practices among 288 classroom/special area teachers and teaching assistants in 20 urban, suburban and rural schools (recruited through a school wellness trial) in 4 districts. LPA and MVPA was assessed using 24-h ankle accelerometry (up to seven consecutive days). A sum score for teacher PA practices was assessed via survey (7 items; sum score range: 7–35; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.73; higher scores indicate more PA promoting practices). Teacher-level factors included gender, race, self-reported height/weight, years teaching, and education. School-level factors included school type, free-and-reduced-price meal eligibility, student racial/ethnic composition, and urbanicity. Analyses included multilevel regression models, accounting for clustering within schools and adjusting for demographic covariates and school district.ResultsTeachers were 91% female, 63% elementary, 60% white, mean age 43.2 years (SD = 11.3), and 41% obese). Teachers wore accelerometers an average of 5.8 days, spent 399.6 min in LPA (SD = 85.0) per day, 24.1 min in MVPA (SD = 14.4) per day, and the mean teacher PA practices sum score was 22.4 (SD = 5.0). Every 15-min increase in MVPA was related to an increase in teacher PA practices sum score (coeff =1.07; SE = 0.28; p < 0.001). Female gender (versus males; coeff = − 1.95; SE = 0.92, p = 0.034), an obese weight status (versus non-obese; coeff = − 1.38; SE = 0.54, p = 0.010), and teaching in a middle school (versus elementary; coeff = − 3.86; SE = 0.54, p < 0.001) were associated with lower teacher PA practices scores. LPA was not associated with teacher PA promoting practices.ConclusionsTeachers with higher MVPA, but not higher LPA, and those without obesity were more likely to implement PA promoting practices that could positively impact their students’ PA. Similar to prior studies, these practices were more commonly implemented in elementary schools and by male teachers. Future studies in schools should explore whether improvement of teacher health behaviors subsequently impacts student health behaviors.Trial registrationClinical Trials, NCT03432715; Registered on 02/2/2018.

Evaluating class and school effects on the joint student achievements in different subjects: a bivariate semiparametric model with random coefficients

This paper proposes an innovative statistical method to measure the impact of the class/school on student achievements in multiple subjects. We propose a semiparametric model for a bivariate response variable with random coefficients, that are assumed to follow a discrete distribution with an unknown number of support points, together with an Expectation-Maximization algorithm—called BSPEM algorithm—to estimate its parameters. In the case study, we apply the BSPEM algorithm to data about Italian middle schools, considering students nested within classes, and we identify subpopulations of classes, standing on their effects on student achievements in reading and mathematics. The proposed model is extremely informative in exploring the correlation between multiple class effects, which are typical of the educational production function. The estimated class effects on reading and mathematics student achievements are then explained in terms of various class and school level characteristics selected by means of a LASSO regression.

Measuring Middle School Achievement Trajectories for College Readiness

This study identifies students’ academic trajectories in the middle grades relative to a set of college readiness benchmarks. We apply math and reading college readiness benchmarks to rich longitudinal data for more than 360,000 students across the nation. Student-level and school-level demographic characteristics significantly predict academic trajectories. Compared to White and Asian students, higher proportions of Black and Hispanic student are always off-track throughout middle school. Among students who started 6th grade on track, being male, Black, Hispanic, and attending schools with a higher percentage of low-income students are positively associated with falling off track.

A path analysis model examining self-concept and motivation pertinent to undergraduate academic performance: A case of Kenyan public universities

The academic performance of undergraduates is as a result of several factors involving student- and school-level characteristics. Understanding the effect of these factors is beneficial to both students and the entire institution. The current study examines the relationship between the independent variable (self-concept) and dependent variable (student academic performance) through a proposed mediator (motivation). Correlation design, multiple regression and mediation analysis were employed as the procedures of analyzing our data. The study sample comprises 365 final-year students drawn from arts and science faculties in selected universities based in Kenya. Correlation output revealed that academic performance positively correlated with motivation (r=0.333, P<0.01). Further composite regression analysis revealed a significant influence of motivation (β = 0.97, P<0.001) on academic performance. Mediation analysis identified indirect-only mediation (a ×b= 0.049, P < 0.01). Both Sobel z-test and bootstrap results indicated a significant indirect effect a × b while the direct effect C is not significant, thus signaling the presence of indirect-only mediation. Generally, motivation has a mediating role (β = 0.311, r = 0.333) in relation to self-confidence and academic performance. These results imply that students’ levels of motivation and self-concept are vital to enhance academic performance. Key words: Academic performance, mediation, path analysis, self-concept, motivation.

Educators' perceived mental health literacy and capacity to support students' mental health: associations with school-level characteristics and provision in England.

Conceptual frameworks for school-based, preventive interventions recognise that educators’ capacity is, in part, dependent on school-level characteristics. This study aimed to (i) examine the factor structure and internal consistency of the Mental Health Literacy and Capacity Survey for Educators (MHLCSE); (ii) assess responses in relation to supporting students’ mental health; (iii) describe schools’ mental health provision in terms of designated roles, training offered, and perceived barriers; (iv) investigate variance in MHLCSE outcomes explained by schools; and, (v) explore school-level predictors of educators’ perceived MHL and capacity after controlling for individual-level characteristics. A multi-level, cross-sectional design involving 710 educators across 248 schools in England was used, and secondary analyses of baseline data collected as part of the Education for Wellbeing Programme were conducted. Mental health provision data was available for 206 schools, of which 95% offered training to some staff, and 71% had a designated mental health lead. Secondary schools offered significantly more training than primary schools. Significant barriers included lack of capacity in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) and within school, and communication challenges between agencies. The amount of training offered by schools significantly predicted educators’ awareness and knowledge of mental health issues, treatments and services, legislation and processes for supporting students’ mental health and comfort providing active support, with increased training predicting higher scores. However, little variance was explained by schools (1.7–12.1%) and school-level variables (0.7–1.2%). Results are discussed in relation to current mental health and education policy in England.

Promoting student achievement in high school using school funding: evidence from quantile regression discontinuity design

Even though there are many quasi-experimental research in recent literature, there is still no consensus on whether an increase in school funding improves student achievement. Leveraging a natural experiment in South Korea, this study exploits the discontinuity in school funding rules to identify the impact of increased funding on the test scores of high-school students in a national assessment exam. The setting provides a useful context to study the effect of school funding because students typically attend largely similar schools that follow a standardized curriculum, thus eliminating the possibility of the results being contaminated by idiosyncratic variation in school-level characteristics. This study reports mean regression discontinuity estimates as well as quantile regression discontinuity estimates using a procedure suggested by Frandsen et al. (J Econom 168:382–395, 2012). The findings reveal that an increase in school funding, which is equal to approximately 300,000 won per student, results in improved exam performance, particularly in mathematics. Contrary to the stated purpose of the program, however, the evidence suggests that students in the middle and top of the ability distribution gained the most from the intervention, rather than students who are at the highest risk of failing.

Age and Gender Differences and the Contribution of School Size and Type in the Prevalence of Bullying

This article looks into methodological issues in the assessment of bullying, providing cross-national bullying statistics and discussing the possible causes of essential variation in prevalence rate estimates. Individual- and school-level characteristics of bullying are described based on the results of a large-scale representative survey of school students (201 schools, 18 433 students) in Kaluga Oblast (Russia). Our findings show that 15.3% of all students in grades six through nine become victims of bullying during the school year, which is in line with the data obtained in the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC), a WHO cross-national study, carried out on a nationally representative sample in Russia. In the age cohort analyzed, prevalence of bullying is the highest (19.4%) among sixth-graders and the lowest (11.1%) among ninth-graders. Girls and boys are bullied at approximately the same frequency, but boys are exposed more to physical abuse while girls are more likely to be victimized verbally and socially. Prevalence rates of bullying behavior vary dramatically across schools, from 0 to 40% of students in a school being exposed to bullying during the school year, yet the prevalence of bullying is unrelated to schools’ structural characteristics (type, urban/rural, size, socioeconomic status). The relationship between school climate and bullying is discussed in the article, and further avenues of research are outlined.

Association between Nutrition Policies and Student Body Mass Index.

In response to concerns about childhood obesity, many US states have implemented policies to limit the sale of unhealthy foods and beverages (e.g., snacks, desserts, and sugary drinks) sold in competition with school meal programs (i.e., competitive foods) in order to improve the nutritional environment of schools and support student health. This study measured state-level competitive food and beverage policies that require foods and beverages sold in à la carte lines, vending machines, and school stores to meet strong nutrition standards and tested the hypothesis that students living in states with stronger laws would have lower body mass index (BMI)-for-age percentiles. BMI data from a national sample of 1625 students attending 284 schools from the School Nutrition and Meal Cost Study were linked to state laws coded as part of the National Wellness Policy Study. A survey-adjusted linear regression model accounting for student and school-level characteristics showed that stronger state nutrition policies were associated with lower student BMI scores (coefficient: −0.06, 95% CI: −0.12, −0.00). Additional models indicated that stronger state policies were significantly associated with fewer unhealthy foods and beverages available in schools. These findings suggest that strong regulations on competitive foods and beverages may lead to improvements in the nutritional quality of the school environment and student BMI. Thus, current federal standards regulating snacks in US schools (i.e., Smart Snacks) are an important element of a comprehensive strategy to improve the school nutrition environment and reduce rates of childhood obesity.

Profiling the health-related physical fitness of Irish adolescents: A school-level sociodemographic divide.

Examining factors that may explain disparities in fitness levels among youth is a critical step in youth fitness promotion. The purpose of this study was twofold; 1) to examine the influence of school-level characteristics on fitness test performance; 2) to compare Irish adolescents' physical fitness to European norms. Adolescents (n = 1215, girls = 609) aged 13.4 years (SD .41) from a randomised sample of 20 secondary schools, stratified for gender, location and educational (dis)advantage, completed a series of field-based tests to measure the components of health-related physical fitness. Tests included: body mass index; 20 metre shuttle run test (20 m SRT); handgrip strength; standing broad jump (SBJ); 4 x 10 metre shuttle run; and back-saver sit-and-reach (BSR). Overall, boys outperformed girls in all tests, aside from the BSR (p < 0.005, t-test, Bonferroni correction). Participants in designated disadvantaged schools had significantly higher body mass index levels (p < 0.001), and significantly lower cardiorespiratory endurance (20 m SRT) (p < 0.001) and muscular strength (handgrip strength) (p = 0.018) levels compared to participants in non-disadvantaged schools. When compared to European norms, girls in this study scored significantly higher in the 20 m SRT, 4 x 10 metre shuttle run and SBJ tests, while boys scored significantly higher in the BSR test (Cohen's d 0.2 to 0.6, p < 0.001). However, European adolescents had significantly higher handgrip strength scores (Cohen's d 0.6 to 0.8, p < 0.001). Irish adolescents compared favourably to European normative values across most components of HRPF, with the exception of muscular strength. School socioeconomic status was a strong determinant of performance among Irish adolescents. The contrasting findings for different fitness components reiterate the need for multi-component testing batteries for monitoring fitness in youth.

Framework for analysing continuity in students’ learning experiences during primary to secondary transition in mathematics

The transition from primary to secondary education tends to have deleterious effects on student achievement and motivation in mathematics, and these effects have been significantly linked to lack of curricular and pedagogical continuity at transition. Curricular and pedagogical practices in each phase of schooling are influenced by a number of factors including, for example, teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching, and a range of other school and societal level characteristics. We propose a novel theoretical framework for studying continuity of learning experiences during primary/secondary transition in mathematics which takes cognisance of these factors. The framework is based on aspects of the so-called anthropological theory of didactics, which acknowledge that mathematics learning and teaching are human activities that cannot be divorced from the broader organisational, societal and cultural contexts within which they occur; teacher attributes; and Dewey’s principle of continuity of experience. Potential applications of the framework to other forms of educational transition are also signposted.

Do student social background and school context affect implementation of a school-based physical activity program?

This study examined the relationship between student- and school- characteristics and different implementation parameters of “Active All Year Round”, a nationwide Danish school-based physical activity program. The study is based on data from multiple sources: questionnaire data from students from 16 fifth-grade school classes (n = 276) and their teachers (n = 16), in-class observations (n = 15) and register data. Predictors included the student-level characteristics of gender, family affluence, immigration background, and perception of school connectedness as well as the school-level characteristics of school size, school parental education level, school physical activity policy and school’s prioritization of health promotion. Implementation was assessed by creating an implementation score from data on program psychological reach, dose delivered, dose received and fidelity. Data were analyzed by multilevel linear regression analysis. Findings indicated that the program was more easily implemented for students with higher school connectedness. To conclude, school-based health promotion programs can be improved by knowing, before the program is implemented, which factors increase the odds of better implementation.

The Impact of a District-Wide Chocolate Milk Removal Policy on Secondary Students’ Milk Purchasing and Consumption

Abstract Objectives Removing chocolate milk from school cafeterias is an increasingly popular policy approach for reducing youth sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and improving health. Evidence on the impact of such policies in urban secondary schools, which is needed to inform future school-based health improvement efforts targeting our highest-need youth, is lacking. The objective of this study is to determine the impact of a school district's chocolate milk removal policy on racially/ethnically and socioeconomically diverse middle and high school students’ milk, calcium, and added sugar consumption. Methods Student-level lunch data were collected in the springs of 2016 (pre-chocolate milk removal policy) and 2018 (post-policy) during one lunch period each in 24 middle and high schools in a diverse urban school district. Linear mixed effects models adjusted for school-level demographic characteristics were used to assess changes in the proportion of students who purchased milk; the proportion of milk consumed; and the average grams of added sugar, ounces of milk, and grams of calcium consumed per student. Results Pre-policy, 3,158 students (mean 132 per school) participated in lunch data collection across all 24 schools; post-policy, 2,966 students (mean 124 per school) participated. There was a 13.6% (95% CI −16.4, −10.8) decrease in the proportion of students who purchased milk pre-policy (89.5%) to post-policy (75.9%). The proportion of milk consumed remained stable pre- (68.3%) and post-policy (66.3%; 95% CI for difference −4.1, 0.01). There was a statistically significant 3.8g decline in added sugar consumed post- policy (95% CI for change −3.9g, −3.6g) and no significant changes in ounces of milk or grams of calcium consumed. Conclusions Immediately post-chocolate milk removal from school cafeterias, fewer secondary students purchased milk. However, among students who purchased milk, consumption remained stable pre- and post-policy, and added sugar consumption significantly declined. Evidence on the longer-term impact of chocolate milk removal policies is necessary. Funding Sources This work was funded by the United States Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, (Grant ID: 2015-68001-23236); Technology and Design Innovation to Support 21st Century School Nutrition.

A multilevel analysis of gross motor coordination of children and adolescents living at different altitudes: the Peruvian Health and Optimist Growth Study

Background Gross motor coordination (GMC) is a potential correlate of lifestyle behaviours and health outcomes in childhood and adolescence. Aims The aim of this study was to examine how sex, age, biological maturation, overweight, stunting, and physical fitness are associated with GMC in children and adolescents from Peru, and to examine associations between geographical area of residence, school-level characteristics, and GMC. Subjects and methods The sample included 7408 subjects, aged 6–14 years, from sea level, Amazon and high-altitude regions of Peru. A composite marker of total coordination was derived by the sum of scores from each test (GMCT). Overweight was identified using BMI, and biological maturation, physical fitness, and stunting were assessed. School characteristics were obtained via an objective audit. Results Boys (β = 12.23 ± 0.90) and older children (β = 13.37 ± 0.64) had higher GMCT than girls and younger children, respectively. Overweight was associated with lower GMCT (β = −5.23 ± 0.80), whereas fitness was positively associated with GMCT (β = 6.30 ± 0.25). Biological maturation was not a predictor; however, stunting was negatively associated with GMCT (β = −3.71 ± 1.56). Subjects living in the Amazon had higher GMCT than those at sea level (β = 16.57 ± 4.73). Five of nine school-level predictors (number of students, playground area with obstacles, multi-sports roofed, frequency and duration of Physical Education classes) were significant predictors of GMCT. Conclusions Child- and school-level variables were significantly associated with GMCT in this sample. These findings are important for the Peruvian community, especially school principals, councils and physical education teachers, helping them to define more efficient strategies and action plans to increase motor coordination in children.

School-Level Prevalence and Predictors of e-Cigarette Use in 8th, 10th, and 12th Grade U.S. Youth: Results From a National Survey (2015–2016)

PurposeThe aim of this study was to examine the school-level prevalence and predictors of e-cigarette use among U.S. adolescents. MethodsThe Monitoring the Future study is an annual national cross-sectional study of secondary (middle and high) school students. This study uses 2015 and 2016 survey data from 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students (n = 38,926) attending 580 U.S. public and private secondary schools. E-cigarette use, binge drinking, cigarette smoking, marijuana use, and nonmedical prescription drug use were measured at the individual level. School-level characteristics were measured with both aggregated student-level measures (e.g., school-level e-cigarette use, school-level racial composition) and school characteristics (e.g., public vs. private, urban vs. rural). ResultsThe prevalence of past-month e-cigarette use varied considerably across 580 U.S. middle and high schools, ranging from 0% to 60% at individual schools (mean = 10.2%, standard deviation = 8.9%). Multivariable regression analyses indicated that past-month e-cigarette use was significantly higher at schools with a higher proportion of White students, schools that were located in the U.S. Southern and Western regions, and schools with higher prevalence of past-month cigarette smoking, after controlling for relevant individual- and school-level covariates. ConclusionsE-cigarette use varies considerably across schools, and this study suggests that school context plays an important role in e-cigarette use. Cigarette smoking and e-cigarette use at the school level are closely linked and are important risk factors for individual-level e-cigarette use. The wide variation in prevalence of e-cigarette use highlights the need for schools to work with professionals to obtain school-level assessment rather than relying solely on state or national results to guide prevention efforts.

Schools near Toxics Release Inventory Sites: An Environmental Justice Study for Schoolchildren in Boston, MA

Previous research on environmental justice has demonstrated a disproportionate burden of environmental hazards on low-income and minority residents. This study uses statistical and GIS analysis methods to examine whether, in Boston, there are disparities in the proximity of public schools to Toxics Release Inventory sites based on school-level characteristics, such as schoolchildren’s racial and socio-economic statuses, educational resources and academic achievements. Research results show that schools with high percentages of minority (i.e. Black schoolchildren) and economically disadvantaged schoolchildren are more likely to be located closer to Toxics Release Inventory sites in Boston, indicating the existence of an environmental injustice issue in the city. In addition, schoolchildren in the schools located closer to Toxics Release Inventory sites tend to have lower academic performance. This research suggests that special attention should be given to unequal exposure of public schools to hazardous sites in Boston and calls for decision makers to spend scarce funds on promoting environmental justice. Such changes could have positive effects on schoolchildren’s academic achievements.

The associations of specific school- and individual-level characteristics with obesity among primary school children in Beijing, China.

We aimed to investigate the associations between school-level characteristics and obesity among Chinese primary school children with consideration of individual-level characteristics. This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2015/2016. School-level characteristics were assessed using an interviewer-administered school questionnaire, and a 'school-based obesity prevention index' was further developed. Individual-level characteristics were collected by self-administered questionnaires. Objectively measured height and weight of students were collected, and obesity status was classified according to the International Obesity Task Force criteria for Asian children. Generalised linear mixed models were used to estimate the associations among the school- and individual-level characteristics and obesity of students. Thirty-seven primary schools from an urban and a rural district of Beijing, China. School staffs, 2201 students and their parents. The school-based obesity prevention index involved the number of health professionals, availability of students' health records, monitoring students' nutrition status, frequency of health education activities, reporting achievements of obesity prevention activities to parents, duration of physical activity during school time and availability of playground equipment. The prevalence of obesity was lower in schools with the higher index value compared with that in schools with the lower index value (OR 0·56; 95 % CI 0·40, 0·79). Some individual-level characteristics were negatively associated with childhood obesity: liking sports, duration of screen time ≤2 h/d, perceived lower eating speed, parental non-overweight/obesity. Irrespective of individual-level characteristics, the specific school-level characteristics had a cumulative effect on obesity among Chinese primary school children. Further school-based obesity intervention should consider these characteristics simultaneously.

School nurse reported supply and administration of naloxone in schools.

To describe school nurse reported naloxone supply and administration in Pennsylvania, as well as nurse and school-level characteristics associated with naloxone availability. Cross-sectional, online survey with school nurses in Pennsylvania. Data were collected (3/14/18-6/5/18) on school nurse demographic and professional characteristics, school characteristics, naloxone supply and administration, and when not available, reasons for not having a naloxone supply. A total of 362 school nurses met inclusion criteria, representing schools in 56 of the 67 Pennsylvania counties. Over half of the school nurses reported a naloxone supply in their school building (53.6%, n=194). Additionally, 5.2% of those who had a naloxone supply reported that it had been administered in their school or at a school sponsored activity. The most common reasons for not having naloxone available included lack of support and the belief that naloxone was not needed in their school. Although many school nurses reported having a naloxone supply in their school, and a small percentage reported administration, particular barriers to access and use remain.

Drivers of school performance over time: Evidence from public schools in the United States

Few studies have analyzed the effect of the drivers of school performance over time. This research investigates how school-level student characteristics, such as funding and student-teacher ratio, influence school academic performance in the short-term and in long-term, a key differentiating feature of this work from other studies. Our focus is on the U.S. state of Georgia, but the setting of Georgia is the same as settings throughout the U.S.: considerable variation between schools in achievement and resources. In this study, school performance is defined as the proportion of students that meet or exceed benchmarks on end of year exams. Study findings indicate that teacher experience, measured by average number of years teaching, and student-teacher ratio exhibit the largest effect in both the short and long-term. Poverty rate exhibited a strong negative effect on school performance, confirming previous studies. However, poverty rate had the most impact in the STEM subjects of math and science. School funding did not show any significant effect in school performance in the short-term, but a significant positive effect in the long-term, such that increased school funding per pupil improved school performance in future years. Our results indicate that investing resources to increase the number of teachers and hiring teachers with more experience can be economically more effective than simply increasing the per-pupil spending, at least in the short-term.