School-based Practice Research Articles

Using student stand out moments to reclaim school-based social work placement

During the pandemic, one university experienced considerable challenge sourcing placements for student social workers. In response, they developed the SWIS project through which placed nearly 50 students in schools. To capture their experiences in practice learning, students were invited to participate in a reflective workshop. This paper focuses on one activity where students were asked to reflect on ‘stand out moments’ (SOM) when undertaking their school-based placement. The paper is underpinned by transformative learning theory, through which we explore the journey or process in practice learning which can facilitate growth and change. The data was collected as part of a wider action research study, with findings reasserting the centrality of direct work and relationship-based practice. The discussion section highlights how school-based placements provided significant opportunities for learning and development, such as being afforded the ‘freedom’ to be creative in developing child focused interventions. This paper has implications for revisiting the potential for school-based practice learning, as settings with wide ranging learning opportunities, which can inspire and empower students.

Queer youth and critical sexuality education pedagogies within networked publics: implications for school-based practice

ABSTRACT There is a body of international literature demonstrating queer young people’s dissatisfaction with their school-based sexuality education. Seeking relevant information and social support, queer young people frequently report turning to the internet. Though this is well-documented in the literature, little research has specifically examined young people’s embeddedness in social media sites – or networked publics – as a legitimate form of sexuality education pedagogy. Drawing on narrative data on the sexuality education experiences of trans, non-binary and gender diverse Australians aged 18–26, this article uses the perspectives of Paulo Freire and bell hooks to theorise and compare the sexuality education pedagogies in the classroom and within queer networked publics. While school-based approaches are often limited to banking pedagogies that communicate prescriptive and normative ‘facts’ about sex, gender and health, online pedagogies represent a much greater potential for peer teaching and learning that is comprehensive, queer-affirming, and arguably impossible to replicate at school. This paper teases out the implications of this argument for school-based sexuality education pedagogies that grapple with expectations to be comprehensive in addressing diversity and digital literacy, and it maps out possibilities for formal and informal sexuality education to complement each other in a more holistic way.

Growing up bilingual through a pandemic: Children’s language exposure, proficiency, social identities, and competences pre- and post-lockdowns

Aims and objectives: There were already calls for more longitudinal research on younger bilinguals before the COVID-19 pandemic, which added another layer of complexity to their development. This study followed the language and social-developmental outcomes of primary-school pupils before and after the pandemic lockdowns, specifically examining changes in language exposure and proficiency and social identities and competences. Design and methodology: Eighty-eight mostly British-born English-dominant pupils (initial ages 4–9), including a subset ( N = 19) who attended heritage language (HL) complementary schools (CS), were assessed in 2019 (Time1), and reassessed in 2021 (Time2) after a 2020 time point was interrupted by school closures. Data and analysis: Individual interviews, at each time point, used measures for perceived language proficiency and exposure, ethnic/heritage and British/national identities, social competences and family affluence (FA), for exploring changes over the pandemic. At Time2, measures on pandemic-period learning engagement were included to explore their possible effects. Findings and conclusions: Controlling for age and FA, children reported lower social competences at Time2 compared with Time1. At both time points, CS-attendees reported higher HL proficiency than did non-attendees, who reported a larger Time1–Time2 decline in HL exposure. Pandemic-period HL learning hours were associated with change in cognitive competence. Hierarchical regression models showed that Time1–Time2 change in heritage identification was individually explained by change in HL proficiency, and change in British identification by change in English proficiency, which also contributed to changes across all social competences. Originality: There has been little systematic research on how the pandemic impacted HL, with most studies focusing on English skills or family language practice. This research indicates the longitudinal trajectories of bilingual children’s social development over a period of unprecedented education and homelife disruptions. Significance and implications: While the pandemic variables did not directly contribute to outcomes, findings implicate challenges in maintaining HL exposure, which supports proficiency and identity formation. Recommendations for school-based practice with educators and communities are discussed.

The Ethical Issues of School-Based Occupational Therapy Practice in Quebec-Canada

ABSTRACT In Quebec-Canada, school-based occupational therapy has expanded over the last decade. This emerging practice context poses distinctive ethical issues for occupational therapists, but no empirical studies have documented them. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the ethical issues faced by school-based occupational therapists in Quebec. Using a qualitative inductive research design, 19 school-based occupational therapists practicing in Quebec were interviewed individually. All participants reported experiencing ethical issues in their practice. Nine categories emerged from the analyzed data, covering ethical issues in the micro-environment (n = 4), meso-environment (n = 3), and macro-environment (n = 2). In the micro-environment, occupational therapists face ethical issues relating to collaboration with school teams, management of restraints and seclusion, compliance with practice standards, and accessibility of services. In the meso-environment, they experience ethical issues linked to the cultural clash between healthcare and education, the inclusion of students with disabilities in schools, and the lack of understanding and recognition of occupational therapy. In the macro-environment, they encounter ethical issues arising from the lack of resources, and the lack of intersectoral collaboration between healthcare and education systems. Describing the ethical issues of occupational therapy school-based practice is a first step toward identifying ways of preventing and resolving them.

The development of quality indicators to increase effectiveness and efficiency in school-based practice

ABSTRACT Effective measures of the quality of services provide transparent and accountable standards to examine and illustrate high-quality care and contributions to client outcomes. They identify priorities for professional development action planning and allow practitioners to detect gaps in knowledge. Drawn from the need to measure and articulate effectiveness and to guide quality improvement efforts, the Quality Indicators of School Practice (QISP) was developed to provide school-based occupational therapy practitioners and collaborators a mechanism to examine occupational therapy practice, consider its contextual meaning, and illustrate the application of the indicators in practice. A rigorous and extended process grounded in content analysis, reflection, and member checking was used to develop the resource. The QISP creates a baseline to strengthen the profession’s knowledge of school practice, reduces barriers to evidence implementation, provides meaningful data for practitioner reflection and best practice decision making, and offers occupational therapy and its collaborators a deepened and consistent understanding of what effective and efficacious occupational therapy looks like in school settings.

‘Where Have I Found Myself’? Exploring How Black Social Work Students Navigate Identities in School-Based Practice Learning

Abstract In 2020, the social work in schools (SWIS) project was implemented with an initial cohort of fifty-four social work students from an Eastern English university. With the aim of exploring the student experience, we undertook an initial focus group. One unanticipated aspect of these discussions was how black students reflected on their experience of being placed in predominantly white schools, which merited a follow-up focus group to explore this in more depth. Intersectionality underpinned this study as it offered an analytical approach to understand the interconnected identities of black students within the context of schools. Constructivist grounded theory was used to analyse the data, and three categories were identified in understanding experiences of participants: Race and Experiences of Being Placed in Schools; Intersections of Race, Racism, and Acceptance; and Experiences of Learning in Schools. Concepts of belonging, acceptance and racial identity underpin these categories and help us understand black students’ experiences of undertaking SWIS placements. Black students developed their skills, knowledge, self-concept and confidence in schools. Conclusions are drawn highlighting the centrality of harnessing black students’ cultural wealth and knowledge to facilitate positive relationships for learning.

Integrating nature into practice: Occupational therapists’ perspectives

ABSTRACT Nature-based settings are unique in that they enhance occupational performance and well-being. Subsequently, the use of nature has recently been adopted by schools as a supplemental environment to support student performance and educational outcomes. While previous studies have investigated the effects of nature on general education students and educator impressions, little research exists regarding the perceptions of school-based occupational therapists (OTs) who use outdoor environments and their impact on special education students. This qualitative pilot study will examine the perceptions of school-based OTs who provide interventions to special education students in nature-based settings. A phenomenological approach will capture the essence of OTs’ experiences to better understand why and how OTs use nature in school-based practice, perceived benefits and challenges, and the roles they assume as they implement nature-based interventions within their schools. Study results will inform and enhance occupational therapy practice by increasing the awareness and understanding of an alternative learning environment to support students who receive special education services.

A Profile of Occupational Therapists Working in School-Based Practice in Australian Primary Schools.

Inclusive education has increased the demand for school-based occupational therapy services and has reconceptualised the practice in mainstream schools. Therapists are now expected to work collaboratively with teachers within tiered intervention models to support access and participation of all students, including those with disabilities, within the natural classroom context. School-based occupational therapy has become a specialised area of practice, as therapists work within educational, rather than health, systems and processes. While the growth in demand and expanded scope of practice is positive for the profession, predicted workforce shortages and the necessity for specialised and enhanced practice present significant challenges. The ability of the profession to fully support the demands of an inclusive education system remains unclear. As accurate, up-to-date information on the school-based therapy workforce is the foundation for planning future personnel needs, knowledge of the current state of the workforce is critical. There is a paucity of national data regarding this growing area of practice. The aim of this study is to describe a current profile of school-based occupational therapists to better understand the workforce, practice patterns, and the funding landscape in Australia. A convenient and purposive sample of 108 Australian paediatric occupational therapists working in mainstream primary schools in New South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria was surveyed in this quantitative study, which was analysed using descriptive statistics. Results provide some insights into the workforce and practice of school-based therapy in Australia offering preliminary data for future planning in this important and growing area of paediatric practice. While specific to the local context, results invite cross-national and global comparison to reveal universal trends and localised nuances across diverse settings.

Teachers’ Perspectives on Best Occupational Therapy Service Provision in School-Based Practice: A Qualitative Study

ABSTRACT There is currently limited evidence regarding teachers’ perspectives of push-in and pull-out occupational therapy services in the school-based setting. Occupational therapy services can be delivered in different combinations and often vary based on the needs of the student, needs of the teacher and classroom, need for academic time, and need for social interactions. To examine teachers’ perspectives of push-in and pull-out services, a qualitative approach was used. Thirty-nine participants were recruited using a combination of convenience, snowball, purposive, and voluntary response sampling. Data was collected via a multiple choice and open response online survey. Thematic analysis was completed with the identification of six themes. Pros and cons of both push-in and pull-out service delivery, carryover, and modifications were discussed. Conclusively, most teachers preferred a combination of push-in and pull-out services, highlighting the importance of communication, collaboration, carryover, and finding the just-right fit for each student to best support their needs and learning styles. The findings of this study will better provide school-based occupational therapy practitioners with context for selecting the most appropriate service delivery model for each student.

Effects of Occupational Therapy Professional Development Training on School-Based Practice

ABSTRACT Purpose A training program was provided to school-based occupational therapy practitioners (SBOTPs) in Massachusetts to support practices aligned with educational policies and regulations. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of this training program on school-based practice patterns. Methods This study used a researcher-designed online exploratory survey to determine occupational therapy practice patterns in Massachusetts public schools following the training program. The survey was emailed to the 309 SBOTPs who participated in a Massachusetts Department of Education sponsored training between 2007 and 2019. The survey questions analyzed the frequency of reported participation-based intervention methods, in-context and out-of-context services, and interdisciplinary collaboration used by these practitioners. A Chi Square Goodness of Fit Test was performed to determine if there were categorical differences in the frequency of responses to each research question. Results After analyzing our 29 responses we determined that the training program was effective and had an impact on how SBOTPs practice within their schools. After the training, SBOTPs in Massachusetts reported engaging more frequently in participation-based practice in natural school contexts, and collaborating with teachers and other school professionals. Contribution to Occupational Therapy This research serves as evidence that professional development courses can impact how SBOTPs practice. This study suggests that practice patterns of SBOTS can be influenced by participating in trainings that include a model with rationale and facilitated practice for providing occupation-based services in the least restrictive environment and for increasing collaborative practices in schools. School-based occupational therapy (SBOT) is integral to the educational development of children who require this service as part of their individual educational program (IEP). SBOT helps students to achieve success in occupations within the school setting, such as education, play and leisure, activities of daily living (ADLs), and social participation. Students who receive special education services are eligible for occupational therapy if the IEP team determines that SBOT is necessary to achieve the prioritized student goals developed by the team, enhancing the student’s ability to succeed in the educational program. The overarching goal of school-based occupational therapy in working with eligible students with disabilities under the federal special education law, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), is to support students’ abilities to successfully participate (academically and functionally) in their educational program in the least restrictive environment in order, ultimately, to prepare them for adult living (AOTA, 2017; IDEA, 2004).

Examining changes in teacher education programs: A case study approach

This study retrospectively examines teaching practice within Israeli teacher education programs. A pilot study investigates the implementation of a novel teacher education program in Israeli academia, with a focus on the freedom it grants to institutions. This program emerged during the Covid-19 crisis when e-learning dominated. The study assesses 45 respondents' perceptions of teaching practice and the academia-school relationship through a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. On the quantitative front, the study involved the examination of several questionnaires. These included a self-efficacy questionnaire, an attitude survey regarding teaching, an evaluation of professional identity, and an attitude questionnaire centered on practical experiences within schools. In the assessment of self-efficacy, we utilized a modified version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE). Additionally, the researchers crafted the other questionnaires. The study also encompassed an exploration of student satisfaction levels concerning collaboration during practical experiences, the acquisition of various skills during school-based practice, and the correlation between the teacher training program's different courses and practical work within school settings. The research covered the documentation and formative assessment of the design and alteration processes within teacher education based on the outlined changes. The study evaluated these processes through primary documents from the academic institution, which provided evidence of the change preparation. It also analyzes the goals, learning outcomes, and teaching methods for students specializing in education. The study highlights changes in teaching practice that foster connections between academia and the field, particularly in pedagogy. These changes focus on the intensified school-based experience, paired with e-teaching workshops. Findings reveal that in evaluating teaching practice competence, interpersonal skills and professional identity rank highly among skills gained during field experiences. The research also showcases the acquisition of essential teaching and class management skills. The study raises questions regarding the program's impact on institutions, particularly concerning its role in enhancing autonomy and relevance. The study evaluates the program’s potential as a catalyst for effective teacher education and its ability to attract mission-driven, motivated individuals to the teaching profession.

OT in School-Based Practice: Educator Satisfaction With Understanding of Services Before & After Targeted Training

Abstract Date Presented 04/22/2023 The study assessed whether implementation of targeted training for educators affected understanding of the role of OT in school settings. Significant results were obtained to indicate increased educator satisfaction. Primary Author and Speaker: Matia Gjellstad Contributing Authors: Kayla Lindquist, Morgan Ziesch, Brooke Selvey, Darian Harris

Using Interventions to Increase Test Access: An Alternative to Accommodations?

Students with disabilities are often given accommodations in testing situations (e.g., extended testing time). However, for many students with high-incidence disabilities, interventions can reduce the need for these accommodations or serve as a helpful supplement to accommodations. Applied behavior analysis provides a framework for understanding how accommodations alter testing settings, as well as for developing related interventions. We review research on evidence-based interventions that can reduce the need for five common testing accommodations: extended testing time, separate room administration, test breaks, read-aloud, and dictated response. We conclude with suggestions for changes to school-based practice as well as remaining research needs.

Occupational Therapy Services for Transition-Age Youth with Moderate to Severe Disabilities: A Scoping Review

Purpose: This scoping review seeks to identify specific services, assessments, and interventions utilized by school-based occupational therapy (OT) practitioners working with transition-age youth with moderate to severe developmental disabilities. Methods: A search was conducted in CINAHL, Medline, APA PsychINFO, Education Research Complete, and Academic Search Complete databases. Articles were screened for inclusion and relevant data extracted. Included articles were peer reviewed, referred to any inclusion of occupational therapy services in school-based practice, English-language, and focused on individuals 12-30 years old with moderate to severe disabilities. Results: Twenty articles met criteria for inclusion in the review. All articles included occupational therapy services whether providing direct or indirect services. The top two intervention types used were occupation-based interventions and advocacy-based interventions. The top two assessment types used were task-based and transition-based assessments. Occupational therapists most frequently provided direct services for transition-age youth (78.2%). Conclusions: This review provides a guide for occupational therapy practitioners to advocate for occupational therapy’s role in transition services and overcome the barriers identified: lack of understanding of occupational therapy’s role, lack of resources, lack of measurable assessments, and lack of individualized interventions. This review provides an extensive variety of assessments, interventions, and service delivery approaches available and relevant for occupational therapists working with adolescents and young adults with moderate to severe disabilities.

Outcomes management practices in tiered school-based speech-language therapy: A Canadian example.

Measuring, assessing and managing outcomes in school practice environments is difficult due to the complex nature of school communities as well as the recent shift in service-delivery models towards tiered approaches. In tiered approaches, multiple levels of service are offered to better match students' needs. Each level of service may require different outcomes and management techniques. Research to date on outcomes has focused on measuring outcomes in medical settings, leaving a substantive gap in the literature regarding practice in schools. The first aim was to explore how school-based speech-language therapists approached outcomes management as their clinical programmes transitioned to tiered service-delivery models The second aim was to describe the successes and challenges in outcomes management reported by clinicians in this context. A secondary deductive-inductive content analysis was performed using qualitative interviews with 24 clinical managers and senior therapists from schools across Ontario, Canada. Using a framework of outcomes measurement, assessment and management in schools based on previous research studies, data were grouped into broad categories deductively, and then the content of each category was further explored using inductive coding. Iterative peer debriefing and reflexive journaling were key strategies to increase the trustworthiness of the results. Participants reported measuring and qualitatively assessing seven key outcomes for school-based practice. These included: (1) student progress and achievement, (2) student participation and inclusion in the school community, (3) stakeholder perspectives, (4) 'buy-in', (5) expanded capacities, (6) responsiveness to needs and (7) accountability to systems. Participants reported more challenges than successes in outcomes management during this transition to tiered services. Challenges were attributed to idiosyncratic organizational barriers, the transition to tiered models and the philosophy of working within the educational system. School-based speech-language therapists measure, assess and manage multiple outcomes relevant to school-based practice in tiered service-delivery models. Many challenges remain. Solutions to support meaningful, systematic and proactive outcomes management in schools should address the broader set of outcomes relevant to tiered service-delivery models and the unique practice context of the educational system, while remaining responsive to idiosyncratic organizational factors. Sustained clinical-research collaboration and knowledge exchange is recommended. What is already known on the subject Systematic, proactive collection and interpretation of outcomes has long been encouraged within speech-language therapy. However, implementing outcomes management in clinical practice remains a substantial challenge. Additionally, research on outcomes to date has focused on medical practice environments, to the exclusion of school-based practice. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Outcomes management is valued in school practice environments; however, the current repertoire of techniques for outcomes management are a poor match for school-based practice. Clinicians in schools would benefit from the development of contextually relevant, meaningful and feasible outcomes management tools.

Educators’ perspectives about teaching and supporting students with learning difficulties in reading

We explored the perspectives of school-based educators located in Victoria, Australia, regarding their support of students who have reading difficulties. An anonymous survey was completed by 523 participants, including educators, educational leaders and Student Support Services staff. Results revealed multiple areas of concern related to their capacity to work on reading intervention with these students. Although participants reported that students with reading difficulties were present in most classes, confidence to work effectively with these students was mixed. They described feeling poorly prepared by preservice programs and indicated that insufficient time and mentorship prevented them from serving these students optimally. As a group, they privileged many approaches that align with best practice for struggling readers, such as explicit instruction, but perceived that such practices are not always feasible to implement. Support was also strong for practices considered non-evidence-based, such as adhering to students’ preferred ‘learning-style’. Recommendations for school-based practice, with a specific focus on students with reading difficulties, are made.

Assessment practices of educational psychologists and other educational professionals

ABSTRACT Assessment is one of the five functions of the educational psychologist’s (EP’s) role, yet there is a dearth of research exploring its distinctive contribution to school-based practice, and a lack of definition about what it is. In this study, the assessment practices of EPs were compared with those of other educational professionals who had achieved certification for competence in educational testing. Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics, with patterns emerging which indicated that, while there is some overlap, assessment practices of EPs and other educational professionals often have different foci. Specifically, evidence suggests that EPs offer a broader, more holistic perspective with strong emphasis on the social and emotional wellbeing of the child. Additionally, other practitioners typically have a more school-orientated focus, for example, testing for exam access arrangements, reflecting their professional role. Implications are discussed, particularly in relation to the distinctive contribution to EP assessment.

Preparing OT Student-Clinicians for Effective School-Based Interprofessional Team Dynamics Through a Remote Interprofessional Education Workshop

Abstract Date Presented 03/31/2022 The American Occupational Therapy Association’s (AOTA’s) Vision 2025 promotes OT practitioners working collaboratively within systems (AOTA, 2017). School-based practice is considered the second-largest system, in which 14.5% of OTs in the United States practice (AOTA, 2020). Therefore, there is a need to prepare OT student-clinicians to interact with other professions. An innovative remote school-based interprofessional education (IPE) workshop is an effective method for improving perceptions of OT care coordination in special education systems among professionals. Primary Author and Speaker: Ellen Berger Rainville Contributing Authors: Lisa Shooman, Kristina Curro, Sue Foo

Examining the Current Role of OTs in Trauma-Informed Care Within School-Based Practice

Abstract Date Presented 04/01/2022 Exposure to early trauma significantly influences development, affecting functional participation in daily occupations. Trauma-informed practices within schools are of high interest and significance to school-based practitioners. Results indicate that OTs need to become advocates for the profession, to ensure growth in the understanding of our vast scope of practice within schools, and to continue growing the role of school-based practitioners in supporting children who have experienced trauma. Primary Author and Speaker: Tania Carmela Rosa Contributing Authors: Kimberly Hartmann

Executive Functioning in the Schools: Perspectives from Occupational Therapists

ABSTRACT Awareness of executive functioning and its relevance to both occupational participation and special education is expanding. This study describes how school-based occupational therapists address executive functioning in practice and determined if this differs from traditional areas. Fourteen occupational therapists from four districts in Michigan completed the 36-item online survey consisting of closed and open-ended questions. A majority of these participants agreed that executive functioning impacts school function and occupational therapists should address it in school; yet, only 33% provided intervention using this lens and 77% indicated this as the area they feel least prepared to address in school-based practice. Executive function practice significantly differed from handwriting (p < .05), sensory (p < .01), and fine motor competency (p < .01); fine motor and sensory evaluation (p < .05); and handwriting intervention (p < .05). Participants described their role with executive functioning as collaborative, supplemental to enhance participation, and applicable to functional organization tasks. Although some occupational therapists are embracing an occupation-based process explicitly considering executive functioning, a majority need continued education, role clarity, and advocacy to more intentionally align their team’s services with emerging best practice.