School-based Agricultural Education Research Articles

Teachers’ Opinions About Virtual Reality Technology in School-based Agricultural Education

Technology in school settings has undergone a tremendous degree of evolution in recent decades. Educational technologies can be used for a wide range of applications. In school-based agricultural education (SBAE) settings, an assortment of educational technologies is often used to achieve instructional objectives. As a computer-based technology, virtual reality (VR) technology has been applied in educational contexts for years and is anticipated to grow in use and popularity. VR technology has received little attention in SBAE-focused research. Through the lens of an adapted version of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (2010) reasoned action model, we sought to describe the opinions teachers have regarding VR technology in SBAE. Following Dillman, Smyth, and Christian’s (2014) recommendations, we used an Internet-based questionnaire to collect data from 90 SBAE teachers in Iowa during the 2017-2018 academic year. Our results indicated the teachers generally held favorable opinions about VR technology intertwined with a considerable degree of uncertainty about the technology and its uses. To facilitate opportunities for VR technology-related professional development, we recommend agricultural teacher education faculty develop their own knowledge and skills related to VR technology applications.

Teacher Retention: A Relational Perspective

The sustained shortage of school-based agricultural educators necessitates novel research into variables impacting teacher career commitment. In the current study, a previously unexplored variable in the prediction of career commitment within school-based agricultural education was considered, teacher connectivity. Four elements of teacher connectivity (i.e., within school, other SBAE teachers, curricular, and community) were analyzed in relation to career commitment among a national sample of school-based agricultural educators. Findings revealed teachers perceived the highest levels of connectivity to their curriculum and other SBAE teachers with the lowest levels of connectivity being with other content area teachers and administrators in their own school. Using multiple linear regression, the four elements of connectivity predicted 12% of the variance in career commitment. School connectivity and SBAE teacher connectivity were identified as statistically significant, positive predictors of career commitment. Findings are discussed using the Relational Theory of Working with recommendations emerging for structuring teacher onboarding programs, increasing teacher mentoring efforts, and empowering teachers to engage in interdisciplinary lesson planning. Further, authors provide recommendations for continued scholarship exploring teacher connectivity and career commitment within school-based agricultural education.

Pioneering Spirit: Examining the Motives and Experiences of Non-SBAE Students Majoring in Agricultural Education

With the national shortage of school-based agricultural education (SBAE) teachers and subsequent shortage of skilled workers in food, agriculture, and natural resources careers, more expansive recruitment and retention efforts are needed. Traditionally, preservice teachers in agricultural education originate from within SBAE, yet, some non-SBAE students still find their way to the agricultural education major with a desire to become SBAE teachers. The purpose of this bounded single case study was to understand the lived experiences of non-SBAE high school students majoring in agricultural education; specifically, the motives for majoring in agricultural education and the unique challenges associated with it. Documents were collected and interviews and observations over the course of one year were utilized to gather and analyze data. Researchers identified four major themes emerging from the data: a) Non-SBAE students are motivated by altruistic, intrinsic, and extrinsic values (three subthemes); b) non-SBAE pre-service teachers face common and unique challenges (two subthemes); c) faculty support is critical for persistence in the major; and d) non-SBAE students approach their career with uncertainty and caution. Implications and recommendations related to recruitment of youth and retention of non-SBAE preservice agriculture teachers are discussed.

Preservice Teachers’ Conceptualizations of Agricultural Mechanics

Agricultural mechanics laboratories are frequently available for use within school-based agricultural education (SBAE) settings. Moreover, agricultural mechanics instruction is quite common and can include a wide range of subject matter. Preservice teachers are frequently concerned about teaching agricultural mechanics, sometimes due to negative or no experiences in the subject. We sought to describe how preservice teachers, many of whom had limited experience in agricultural mechanics, conceptualized agricultural mechanics at the beginning and end of a teacher education-focused agricultural mechanics course. Conceptually framing our study using Boud et al.’s (1985) model of reflection, we used a qualitative research design to collect data from 17 preservice teachers. Two themes and four sub-themes were identified through our data analysis process. We found preservice teachers’ conceptualizations of agricultural mechanics were positively impacted as a result of a semester-long course. We recommend SBAE stakeholders continue to engage preservice teachers in high-quality agricultural mechanics-related experiences to better prepare the next generation of teachers to create opportunities for their students.

An examination of the curricular resource use and self-efficacy of Utah school-based agricultural education teachers: An exploratory study.

An examination of the curricular resource use and self-efficacy of Utah school-based agricultural education teachers: An exploratory study.

Teacher Shortage in School-Based, Agricultural Education (SBAE): A Historical Review

Ongoing teacher shortages in SBAE have been a concern dating back to the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 (Hillison, 1987). This historical inquiry identified the longitudinal trends revealed by data derived from the supply and demand studies of SBAE teachers over a 51-year period, and how the studies and their reporting procedures evolved. On average, between 50% and 60% of graduates prepared to teach SBAE nationwide did so during their first year after graduation. The studies’ research teams changed eight times, including 12 lead investigators from eight institutions and, in the case of two reports, the National FFA Organization assisted. Reporting cycles also changed over time. Perhaps the long-term graduates-to-entrants trend should be accepted as canon and stakeholders redouble efforts to recruit a larger pool of future teachers and improve the likelihood of graduates who enter the profession also choosing to remain.

Success, Balance, but Never Both: Exploring Reified Forms of Success in School-Based Agricultural Education

This study utilized a case study design to explore how early career agriculture teachers in Oregon conceptualize success and work-life balance in school-based agricultural education. Wenger's (1998) theory of Communities of Practice, precisely the concept of reification, served as the framework for our study. Our population included 52 agriculture teachers who attended an early career teacher workshop and participated in a seminar on work-life balance. Overall, participants grappled with several tensions regarding notions of success, work-life balance, and the interactions between the two. Findings concluded "success" has been reified to equate the number of awards won, active FFA members, or money earned and, one can be a successful agriculture teacher, a balanced agriculture teacher, but never both. As agriculture teachers strive for success and balance, they encounter emotions of guilt, judgment, fear, and pressure. While participants acknowledged the tensions that exist between notions of success and notions of balance, any progress on achieving such balance is done in vain as no examples of balanced agriculture teachers exist, and messages about success and work-life balance are paradoxical and unsubstantiated. While this study focused on one state, it provides valuable insight into how agriculture teachers are defining and thinking about success.

Mathematics Efficacy and Professional Development Needs of Tennessee Agricultural Education Teachers

School-based agricultural education programs are recognized as contributors to teaching contextualized mathematics and supporting STEM education. This study examined the mathematics teaching efficacy and professional development needs of Tennessee school-based agricultural education teachers related to teaching contextualized mathematics. Tennessee agricultural education teachers were moderately efficacious in Personal Mathematics Teaching Efficacy and Mathematics Teaching Outcome Expectancy, and this may negatively impact the teaching of mathematical concepts found in Tennessee’s agricultural education curricula. Also, similarities and differences were found in the teachers’ professional development needs based upon mathematics teaching efficacy. Future research should seek to discover factors impacting the development of mathematics teaching efficacy among school-based agricultural education teachers. We also recommend professional development related to teaching contextualized mathematics be tailored to the different needs of teachers by states or regions.

Deterrents to Service-Learning's use as a Method of Instruction in the Preparation of Agricultural Education Teachers: The Beliefs and Intentions of Teacher Educators

Service-learning (SL) appears to have influenced school-based, agricultural education (SBAE) since its early inception. And current trends suggest the method may be gaining increased interest in the discipline. However, little is known about the role that agricultural education teacher educators’ beliefs and intentions play in deterring SL’s use as a method of instruction in the preparation of agricultural education teachers. This study’s purpose, therefore, was to understand teacher educators’ normative and control beliefs as well as their intentions regarding SL as a method of instruction. Participants reported that barriers existed at the classroom level, which influenced their intentions. SL teaching experience was also found to have a negative and statistically significant (p < .01) relationship with agricultural education teacher educators’ beliefs about the challenges they associated with using the method. It is recommended that future research explore diffusion methods that could stimulate more widespread adoption of SL by teacher educators of agricultural education.

Identifying the Characteristics of an Effective Agricultural Education Teacher: A National Study

The educational landscape in America is changing every day. The need for effective teachers, especially those in agricultural education, remains a high priority. This national study sought to identify the human capital (i.e., education, training, skills, and experiences) necessary for effective school-based agricultural education teachers. The modified Delphi approach consisting of award- winning agricultural education teachers, state staff, and National FFA Board of Directors in the 2017 calendar year was used to collect data. Three rounds of data collection resulted in 58 characteristics, across eight different categories, reaching consensus of agreement. Panelists agreed unanimously on 28 items. The top-rated item was, “understands student needs.” The eight categories emerging from the data included: Instruction, FFA, SAE, Program Planning, Balance, Diversity and Inclusion, Professionalism, and Personal Dispositions. Personal Dispositions (n = 14) and Instruction (n = 14) were the two themes generating the greatest numbers of items. SAE (n = 1) was the category with the least amount of items generated. The results of this study serve as a call to action for a balanced program and personal life, refrain from working extra hours, and limiting one’s involvement in the community as a leader.

Laboratory Management Needs of Iowa School-Based Agricultural Mechanics Teachers

Further investigation is needed to determine the specific laboratory management needs of agricultural education teachers. The theoretical foundation which guided this study was Bandura's theory of self-efficacy (1997). To further align this theory with this study, researchers explored the beliefs and one's capabilities to organize and excute the course of action to manage an agricultural mechanics laboratory. The research objectives for this study were: Determine the self-perceived level(s) of importance and ability as related to agricultural mechanics laboratory management competencies and determine the professional development needs of Iowa school-based agricultural education teachers regarding agricultural mechanics laboratory management competencies. Results of the Mean Weighted Discrepancy Scores (MWDS) indicated teacher's greatest in-service needs revolved around hazardous laboratory conditions and materials. The competencies which ranked the highest included correcting hazardous laboratory conditions, safely disposing of hazardous materials, properly installing and maintaining safety devices and emergency equipment, safely handling hazardous materials, and safely storing hazardous materials. Agricultural education teachers need professional development in the realm of hazardous conditions within the confines of an agricultural mechanics laboratory and handling hazardous materials. Working with hazardous materials is a critical competency agricultural educators must have when managing any type of laboratory.

Determining the Effects of the Smartphone as a Learning Tool on the Motivation of School-Based Agricultural Education Students in Louisianna

The smartphone is perhaps the most influential device in modern society. Research has indicated students perceived that using smartphones in the classroom aided learning. However, most American high schools ban students from using phones in the classroom. Previous research supports the idea that advanced smartphone applications in student- centered learning environments can improve achievement and motivation. Currently, there is little in the agricultural education literature pertaining to smartphone enhanced learning among secondary agriculture students. This study compared motivational differences between non-equivalent comparison groups. Secondary agricultural students from 13 schools across Louisiana completed the Course Interest Survey to measure motivation during a forestry unit. Data were analyzed using Hierarchical Linear Modeling. The analysis rendered no statistically significant differences between the groups in motivation. It was concluded that smartphones do not reduce motivation and should be considered in agricultural education classrooms where policy permits.

The 4th Industrial Revolution: Implications for School-based Agricultural Education

Global society has experienced a series of “revolutions” that have had significant impacts on the agriculture industry, including the teaching of agriculture in schools. Moving from foraging to farming, agriculture witnessed the growth of the agro-industrial complex and the move from rural to urban settings, followed by industrial movements from muscle power to mechanical power. Most recently, the advancements in technology and technical agriculture have been supported by the computer revolution and the advent of the internet. Now, the workforce must address the interface of technology systems without human interference including robotics, biotechnology, and the “internet of things”. Agricultural education in the public schools in the U.S., including teacher education, is faced with how best to incorporate technological advancements with technical skill development in agriculture, including curriculum development and enhancement and teaching approaches.

Trends and Impact of FFA Affiliation on National FFA Organization Student Membership: A Secondary Analysis of Existing Data

FFA, School-Based Agricultural Education’s student leadership organization, has experienced significant membership growth in recent years. From 1990-2010, FFA membership increased 31%, yet has experienced a similar increase (28%) in just the last eight years, the same time affiliation became a membership option. The purpose of this study was to examine recent FFA membership trends based on current membership options: optional dues-based membership and mandatory affiliation membership. A secondary analysis of FFA chapter membership roster records and annual state reports during the previous four complete academic years beginning in 2013-2014, was completed following the steps of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD). As of 2017, over two-thirds (70.57%) of chapters are still dues-paying chapters. However, when analyzing membership type by FFA members, over half (51.54%) of all FFA members are members through affiliation. When looking at members within each region, the majority of members from the Central, Eastern, and Southern region are dues paying members while the majority of members in the Western region are affiliated members. Additionally, a stronger relationship may exist between national recognition and FFA affiliated chapters than for FFA dues; there may be a relative advantage in national award programs for affiliated chapters.

School-based Agricultural Education Teachers' Perceived Professional Development Needs Associated with Teaching, Classroom Management, and Technical Agriculture

Across the nation, there is a large shortage of teachers in several subject areas (Daniel, 2015; Milliard, 2015; Sutcher, Darling-Hammond, & Carver-Thomas, 2016). In agricultural education, many teachers are leaving the profession within the first five years of beginning their teaching careers (Tippens, Ricketts, Morgan, Navaro, & Flanders, 2013). Professional development opportunities for teachers can be utilized to retain teachers in the profession (Touchstone, 2015). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the professional development needs of Iowa school-based agricultural education teachers in the areas of teaching, classroom management, and technical agriculture. Motivating students to learn, teaching in a land laboratory, proper implementation of Individualized Education Program (IEP) for students with disabilities, teaching students decision-making skills, and developing performance-based assessment instruments were the teaching and classroom management items that SBAE teachers expressed the highest perceived levels of professional development needs. The items with the highest perceived training needs were teaching knowledge and skills in biotechnology, integrating current advances in agriculture technology into the curriculum, teaching knowledge and skills in agribusiness, teaching about public issues regarding agriculture, and teaching knowledge and skills in agricultural mechanic. Future research should be conducted to determine what agriculture technology and biotechnology professional development is needed by in-service teachers.

Examining the Reasons Agricultural Education Teaching Graduates Choose to Enter, Leave, or Stay in the Teaching Profession

With half of all school-based agricultural education teachers leaving the profession within their first six years, the need is greater than ever for post-secondary graduates to enter and stay in the profession. This study explored potential influencers on graduates’ career decisions, focusing on identifying potential reasons they chose to not enter, leave, or stay in the profession. The target population was Montana State University Agricultural Education Teaching graduates who completed their degree program between May 2005 and May 2016 (N = 58). Respondents’ post-graduation career paths fell into five pre-determined groups, which were then narrowed into three broader groups: never entered, leavers, and currently teaching. Similar to previous research, competitive salaries outside education, being recruited for another position, and an inadequate work-life balance emerged as the largest factors in respondents’ decisions to not enter the profession. Somewhat contradictory, adequate work-life balance; stable contracts with a competitive salary; and positive student, school, and community connections emerged as top reasons to remain in the profession. Since the most common reasons for not entering/leaving the profession revolved around careers outside of education, primarily the salaries of those positions, it is recommended that stakeholders explore alternative methods of providing supplemental funding for these salaried positions.

Identifying the Agricultural Mechanics Knowledge and Skills Needed by Iowa School-based Agricultural Education Teachers

Identifying the Agricultural Mechanics Knowledge and Skills Needed by Iowa School-based Agricultural Education Teachers

Competition as an Instructional Approach in School-Based, Agricultural Education (SBAE): A Historical Review

The purpose of this study was to examine and describe the historical role of competition as an instructional approach in SBAE. Pragmatism was found to be the philosophical underpinning of competition in SBAE, and the influences of William James and John Dewey were described. The growth of new National FFA contests was presaged by seminal legislative acts such as the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, the Vocational Education Act of 1963, and by educational reforms in the 1980s. We also identified and discussed the challenges associated with using competition as an instructional approach. Based on the profession’s longstanding concerns about competition at the expense of instruction, i.e., prizing winning over learning, it was recommended that SBAE’s stakeholders continue to examine the educational merits of its competitive activities to revise, alleviate, or add such as may be needed.

Identifying the Agricultural Mechanics Knowledge and Skills Needed by Iowa School-based Agricultural Education Teachers

A historical portion of many school-based agricultural education (SBAE) programs, agricultural mechanics remains popular in schools across the nation. As such, pre-service and in-service teachers should be prepared to effectively deliver agricultural mechanics instruction (Burris, Robinson, & Terry, 2005). Agricultural education researchers (McKim & Saucier, 2012; Pate, Warnick, & Meyers, 2012) have identified many laboratory management competencies and welding skills that teachers should have; however, few knowledge and skill areas in other components of agricultural mechanics (e.g., woodworking, electricity, etc.) have been identified. Through the lens of Roberts and Ball’s (2009) content-based model for teaching agriculture, we used the Delphi technique to identify the agricultural mechanics knowledge and skills that Iowa SBAE teachers should possess to provide quality instruction. A panel of 10 expert Iowa SBAE teachers provided the data for the present study. After three rounds, a total of 85 items reached consensus, which included 35 technical skills (e.g., plasma cutting, etc.) and 49 “teacher skills”/laboratory management skills (e.g., ordering consumables). We concluded that SBAE stakeholders in Iowa should ensure that teachers are prepared to teach agricultural mechanics via coursework and professional development opportunities. We recommend that this study be replicated in other states.

Teachers' Confidence to Integrate Biology in Agriscience Courses

The primary purpose of this study was to determine the confidence levels of School-based Agricultural Education (SBAE) teachers to integrate biology concepts in plant and animal science courses. The researchers also sought to describe the demographic characteristics of New Mexico SBAE teachers. This study used a descriptive-correlational research design. Teachers were asked to identify their confidence levels to teach the state standards of the animal science and plant science course that matched course objectives in biology and life science. The teachers had an average age of 39 and reported having an average of 13 years of teaching experience. The majority of New Mexico SBAE teachers received secondary science teacher certification and over 70% had obtained a master’s degree. Teachers felt the least confident to teach the processes of cell division, including binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis. Teachers felt the most confident integrating biology concepts within lessons dealing with the nutrients required by plants, how they obtain and transport those nutrients, as well as teaching the evolution of plants from green algae. The findings suggest that there are some relationships between years of teaching experience, school size, and teachers receiving the science certification.