Schkuhria Pinnata Research Articles

Health clinic gardens as models for social-ecological systems: Floristic composition and potential utilization of plants in the Bojanala Platinum District North-West Province, South Africa

Health clinic gardens (HCGs) are social-ecological systems (SESs) associated with health clinics on government land and are intended to provide fresh vegetables and fruits to patients struggling to keep healthy immune systems. Little is known about their comparability to other garden types with regards to plant distribution and potential utilization, and thus their potential to address some of the challenges limiting ecosystem services (ESs) provision in other garden types. In this study, we report on the floristic composition and presence of utilitarian plant species at 105 HCGs across a district municipality in the North-West Province, South Africa. Different micro-gardens, including vegetable, medicinal, ornamental, natural vegetation, bare soil, orchard, hedge, and lawn micro-gardens, were identified. To understand plant composition, species were classified according to status of origin, invasive characteristics, Raunkiaer’s life-forms, growth forms, and potential usefulness. To determine the frequency of species occurrence we enumerated the number of gardens containing the respective species. Six-hundred and thirty-three species from 404 genera and 116 plant families were encountered. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. and Urochloa mosambicensis (Hack.) Dandy, found in 91 % and 79 % of gardens, respectively, occurred the most. Herbaceous species were the most dominant, with Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. and Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist occurring the most. Plant species richness was greater in the ornamental (282 species) and natural area (naga) (281 species) micro-gardens, while the hedge had the least (8 species). Fifty-five percent of species in the natural vegetation micro-garden were indigenous, compared to 44 % in the ornamental micro-garden. There was greater diversity in fruit-bearing plants, and most medicinal plant species (70 %) are used as a tonic. Health clinic gardens resemble home gardens and are well positioned to enhance ESs provision at the community scale. Future HCGs research should evaluate community usage of the gardens and the extent to which knowledge of useful plants and efficient gardening practices is upscaled to home gardens around HCGs.

Anti-inflammatory effects of TNF-α and ASK1 inhibitory compounds isolated from Schkuhria pinnata used for the treatment of dermatitis

Ethno-pharmacological relevanceThe Andean Schkuhria pinnata species commonly known as ‘Canchalagua’ is used as an infusion in Andean countries to treat various anti-inflammatory and skin-related pathologies. Aim of the studyThis study determined the anti-inflammatory activity of the aqueous extract from Schkuhria pinnata, identified compounds with high biological activity and performed a structure-activity relationship analysis to determine their binding mechanism. Materials and methodsA bio-guided isolation of the active compounds of Schkuhria pinnata was carried out by selecting the most active sub-extracts and fractions to test their anti-inflammatory activity against the ASK1 and TNF-α cytokines. ResultsThree compounds were obtained, and their structures were elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance. The compounds were (3R,4R)-4-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl) dihydrofuran-2(3H)-one (1), N-[2,3-dihydro-1,3-dimethyl-6-[(2R)-2-methyl-1-piperazinyl]-2-oxo-1H-benzimidazol-5-yl]-2-methoxybenzamide (2), and N-hydroxy-1-cyclopentene-1-carboxamide (3). Regarding their anti-inflammatory activity, the three compounds inhibited the TNF-α and ASK1 cytokines, however, compound 2 was the most active, with an IC50 of 19.08 and 8.94 nM, respectively. ConclusionThe anti-inflammatory activity of the aqueous extract of Schkuhria pinnata was evaluated, followed by the isolation of three compounds and the study of their pharmacological activity. The three compounds have been shown as promising treatment against dermatitis, confirming at the same time their traditional use.

Medicinal uses of the Asteraceae family in Zimbabwe: A historical and ecological perspective

Background: Several plant species belonging to the Asteraceae family are widely used as sources of traditional medicines. The current study was aimed at providing a systematic review of ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Asteraceae species used as sources of traditional medicines in Zimbabwe. Methods: Information related to the ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Asteraceae species was systematically collected using relevant keywords from online databases such as BioMed Central, Web of Science, Springerlink, Google Scholar, Scielo, PubMed, Science Direct, ACS Publications, Scopus and JSTOR, books, dissertations, theses, scientific reports and herbarium specimens. Results: This study showed that 50 species are traditionally used to manage human and animal diseases in Zimbabwe. These species are used as traditional medicines against 51 medical conditions, mainly used in the treatment of gastro-intestinal problems (34 use reports) and respiratory problems (28 use reports). Aspilia pluriseta, Baccharoides adoensis, Bidens pilosa, Brachylaena discolor var. rotundata, Dicoma anomala, Erythrocephalum zambesianum, Gymnanthemum amygdalinum, G. coloratum, Helichrysum caespititium, Inula glomerata, Laggera crispata, Linzia glabra, Lopholaena coriifolia, Schkuhria pinnata, Senecio coronatus, S. latifolius and Tagetes minuta have the highest number of medicinal uses. Majority of the documented species are characterized by flavonoids (46.0%), terpenoids (44.0%), tannins (40.0%), alkaloids (34.0%), saponins (26.0%), essential oils (24.0%) and glycosides (20.0%). Conclusions: Further phytochemical and pharmacological studies would be of great interest for assessment of ethnopharmacological properties of Asteraceae species used as sources of traditional medicines. Keywords: Asteraceae, Compositae, herbal medicine, indigenous knowledge, natural compounds, Zimbabwe

Ethnoveterinary Practices and Ethnobotanical Knowledge on Plants Used against Cattle Diseases among Two Communities in South Africa.

Ethnoveterinary practices and ethnobotanical knowledge serve as potential therapeutic approaches used to manage and prevent cattle diseases within poor communities in developing nations. Most of the knowledge and practices remain inadequately documented and threatened with extinction in the future. This study aimed to explore the ethnoveterinary practices and knowledge on plants used to treat cattle diseases in two communities of the Ramotshere Moiloa local municipality, South Africa. A semi-structured interview guide, snowball, and purposive technique were used to collect data and recruit 90 participants. Three ethnobotanical indices (informant consensus factor (Fic), use-value (UV), and relative frequency of citation (RFC) were used for quantitative analysis. A total of 64 medicinal plants from 32 families (dominated by Compositae, Fabaceae, and Asparagaceae) were used to treat 27 cattle diseases. The plants with a high frequency of citation and RFC were Gomphocarpus fruticosus (75, 0.83), Opuntia ficus-indica (74, 0.82), Schkuhria pinnata and Portulaca oleracea (73, 0.81), Solanum lichtensteinii (70, 0.77), and Senna italica. In addition, Schkuhria pinnata and Aloe greatheadii (0.077) had the highest UV. About 28.13% of 64 identified plants were documented as ethnoveterinary medicine for treating cattle ailments, for the first time. The remedies were mainly either prepared as a decoction (52.04%), ground, or prepared as an infusion (16.33%). The plants were administered either orally (69.79%) or topically (30.2%). The ailments with a high frequency of citations were: wounds and constipation (76); arthralgia and retained placenta (69); and lumpy skin disease (68). The categories with the highest number of plants used were gastrointestinal problems (53), skin problems (33), respiratory problems (25), and fertility/reproduction disorders (21). The highest Fic score was cited for tick-borne diseases (1), followed by musculoskeletal systems (Fic = 0.89), and general system infection (Fic = 0.88). The current findings contribute to the documentation and preservation of valuable knowledge from indigenous communities for extensive use. Additionally, ethnoveterinary uses of Portulaca oleracea, Securidaca longipedunculata, and Plumbago zeylanica were recorded for the first time. Further scientific evaluation of the most cited and indigenous/native plants is recommended to establish their therapeutic potential and possible integration into the conventional veterinary sector for the welfare of cattle.

Soil Mineral Status, Plant Ionome and Agro-Morphological Traits of Schkuhria Pinnata (L.), An Antimalarial Herb: Implications for Cultivation

Background: Schkuhria pinnata L., is an antimalarial plant that is highly threatened by the destructive harvesting methods and its collection largely relies on wild sources, that are also exposed to over-exploitation and habitat destruction. Aim of the study: The study aimed at figuring out where S. pinnata grows best and what its growth requirements are; in order to promote the informed cultivation practices and soil selection as a viable alternative to wild harvesting. The agronomical soil nutrient status of S. pinnata, and how it relates to the agro-morphological traits and plant ionome, clues on fertiliser formulations for soils where S. pinnata does not shrive were reported. Methods: A randomised complete block design was employed in agronomical experimental plots in different agro-ecological zones that host Bushenyi, Ntungamo and Kasese districts. Standard procedures for soil and plant analysis were used to analyse soil physicochemical and plant ionome parameters while agro-morphological traits were physically evaluated. Results: Results demonstrated that soil physicochemical characteristics differed significantly across the study sites (p ≤.05). S. pinnata significantly performed better in slightly acidic to neutral soils (pH between 5.87-7.25) in Kasese than in other sites. S. pinnata harvested from Kasese had the largest total leaf area (mean = 31.43 ± 2.41cm2) and the highest plant biomass (mean = 7.65 ± 0.64 g). Conclusion: The study concluded that S. pinnata grew best in slightly acidic to neutral, sandy loam, non-saline soils of Kasese in Western Medium-High Farmland

Characterisation of the indigenous knowledge used for gastrointestinal nematode control in smallholder farming areas of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

BackgroundThe use of indigenous knowledge (IK) to control gastrointestinal nematodes has been known since ancient times. The objective of the study was to characterise the use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats.MethodsA structured questionnaire was used to collect data from farmers. Chi-square was used to compute associations; the generalized linear model was used for mean rank scores.ResultsRoundworms were the most common gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) affecting goats reared in the bushland vegetation type than grasslands. Twelve plant species were commonly used to control GIN in goats, with Cissus quadrangularis Linn. singled out as the most widely used plant with a use-value of 0.97, followed by Albizia anthelminthica Brongn. (0.66), Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl (0.63), Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter (0.59), Aloe marlothii A. Berger (0.58), Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (0.54), Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (0.53), Aloe maculata All. (0.50), Trichilia emetica Vahl (0.47), Aloe ferox Mill. (0.43), Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard (0.25) and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex Thell (0.16). C. rotundifolia, V. xanthophloea, S. birrea and T. emetica were dominant plant species used to control GIN in goats reared in the grassland vegetation. A. maculata, A. ferox and V. neocorymbosa were dominant in the bushland vegetation type.ConclusionThe study revealed that ethnoveterinary plants are widely used in grassland and bushland vegetation types to control GIN in goats. Scientific validation of their efficacy and safety should be carried out to provide a cheaper alternative, thus improving the community livelihoods and development.

Developmental stages influence in vivo antimalarial activity of aerial part extracts of Schkuhria pinnata

Ethnopharmacological relevanceMalaria remains a dire health challenge, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. In Uganda, it is the most ordinary condition in hospital admission and outpatient care. The country's meager health services compel malaria patients to use herbal remedies such as Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell (Asteraceae). Although in vivo studies tested the antimalarial activity of S. pinnata extracts, plant developmental stages and their effect at different doses remain unknown. Aim of the studyThis study aims to determine the effect of the plant developmental stage on the antimalarial activity of S. pinnata in mice and to document the acute oral toxicity profile. MethodsSeeds of S. pinnata were grown, and aerial parts of each developmental stage were harvested. Extraction was done by maceration in 70% methanol. The antimalarial activity was evaluated using chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium berghei on swiss albino mice, in a chemosuppressive test, at 150, 350, and 700 mg/kg, p.o. Standard drugs used were artemether-lumefantrine (0.57 + 3.43) mg/kg and chloroquine (10 mg/kg) as positive controls. Distilled water at 1 mL/100g was used as a negative control. The Lorke method was adopted to determine the acute toxicity of extracts. ResultsThe flowering stage extract had a maximum suppression of parasitemia at 700 mg/kg (68.83 ± 4.49%). Extract at other developmental stages also significantly suppressed the parasitemia (in the ascending order) fruiting (50.71 ± 1.87%), budding (54.92 ± 7.56%), vegetative (55.39 ± 2.01%) compared to the negative control (24.7 ± 2.7%), p < 0.05. Extracts from all developmental stages increased survival time, with the flowering stage having the highest survival time at 20.33 ± 0.88 days. All extracts had an LD50 of 2157 mg/kg, implying that extracts are safe at lower doses. ConclusionTogether, our findings revealed that the S. pinnata extracts at the flowering stage had superior antimalarial activity compared to other plant developmental stages. Extracts from all developmental stages have demonstrated a dose-dependent suppression of malarial parasites and increased survival time with an LD50 of 2157 mg/kg. Thus, for better antimalarial activity, local communities could consider harvesting S. pinnata at the flowering stage. Further studies are needed to isolate pure compounds from S. pinnata and determine their antimalarial activity.

Potential anticancer activity of Acetone extracts of Toona cilliata, Seriphium plumosum and Schkuhria pinnata on HeLa cervical cancer cells.

Cervical cancer is common in women in less developed regions of the world. The plant biomolecules can be employed for synergistic activity with chemo- and radiotherapy. This combinations might result in reduced toxicity and increased efficacy of the treatment regimen. The anti-HeLa cells activity of the acetone extracts of S. plumosum, T. cilliata and S. pinnata was assessed using different parameters. Secondary metabolite detection and antioxidant activity quantification were determined using the DPPH and ferric iron reducing assays. HeLa cell growth inhibition and mechanistics were assessed by employing MTT and Annexin-V flous assays. Observations revealed the presence of phenolic, flavonoids, tannins steroids and coumarins in all the plants extracts. High amount of total phenolic and flavonoid content were detected in S. plumosum and T. cilliata. S. plumosum extract had the best DPPH scavenging activity and ferric reducing powers. Observable concentration dependent cell proliferation inhibition by test materials was exhibited. The leaf extracts from T. cilliata, S. plumosum and S. pinnata contain compounds of various polarities with free-radical, antioxidant and anti-cancerous activities that may play a beneficial role in treatment.

The anti-nociceptive effects of ethanol extract of aerial parts of Schkuhria pinnata in mice

Ethnopharmacological relevanceThe growing challenge to access conventional analgesics, contraindications, and adverse effects could have led individuals to use Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. (Compositae), as an alternative traditional therapeutic strategy for pain. However, evidence of its safety and efficacy is scarce. Aim of the studyThis study evaluated the anti-nociceptive effect of the ethanol extract of the aerial parts of S. pinnata in mice. MethodsThe mice were randomly assigned to nine groups: (1) vehicle; (2) acetylsalicylic acid (intraperitoneally 150 mg/kg); (3) pentazocine (intramuscularly 1.0 mg/kg); (4 a & b) orally 100 mg/kg extract; (5 a & b) orally 200 mg/kg extract; (6 a & b) orally 400 mg/kg extract. We used an acetic acid-induced writhing model and a tail-flick test. The number of writhes and time taken for the tail to flick was recorded. A one-way analysis of variance followed by Tamhane T2 post hoc was used for multiple comparisons. ResultsCompared to a vehicle (59.0 ± 2.68), S. pinnata ethanol extract at a dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o reduced writhes to 42.5 ± 1.12 and 27.0 ± 2.62, (p < 0.05) respectively. Similarly, the pain threshold of mice increased dose-dependently; doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, increased time to 5.33 ± 0.42 and 8.67 ± 0.21 min, (p < 0.05) respectively. The extract had an EC50 of 348.8 mg/kg and acute toxicity established an LD50 of 1224.8 (95% CI: 952.2–1575.3). ConclusionS. pinnata ethanol extract had anti-nociceptive activity by central and peripheral mechanisms that could justify its traditional use in pain management. Further studies could now focus on identifying active fractions and pure isolated compounds responsible for anti-nociceptive activity.

Effect of extracts from selected Kenyan plants on traits of metabolic syndrom in Wistar rats fed a high-fat high fructose diet

Purpose: To examine the potential of extracts from selected herbs used in African traditional medicine in diabetes patients, and to determine their effect on traits of metabolic syndrome in rats fed a high-fat and high-fructose diet.Methods: Ethanol and aqueous extracts were prepared from Mangifera indica (MI), Lonchocarpus eriocalyx (LE), Urtica massaica (UM), Schkuhria pinnata (SP) and Launaea cornuta (LC). Ethanol extracts (1:100 dilution) were examined for inhibition of pancreatic lipase and α-glucosidase activity invitro. Furthermore, aqueous extracts were administered for 74 days to male Wistar rats fed a high-fat and high-fructose diet to assess their effect on traits of metabolic syndrome.Results: Ethanol extracts showed at least 30 % inhibition of pancreatic lipase in vitro but no effect on α- glucosidase activity. Administration of the aqueous extracts caused significant reduction in liver triglycerides (except for LE). Muscle triglycerides and fat were also reduced, with the most pronounced effect elicited by LE. Urinary glucose excretion and plasma triglycerides, but not hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance, were reduced by UM compared to control.Conclusion: This exploratory study indicates that UM may be considered a candidate for the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes.&#x0D; Keywords: Kenyan traditional medicine, High-fat diet, High fructose, Insulin resistance, Triglycerides, Diabetes, Liver steatosis

Antiplasmodial and Cytotoxic Activities of Extracts of Selected Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Malaria in Embu County, Kenya

Malaria is a deadly disease caused by a protozoan parasite whose mode of transmission is through a female Anopheles mosquito. It affects persons of all ages; however, pregnant mothers, young children, and the elderly suffer the most due to their dwindled immune state. The currently prescribed antimalarial drugs have been associated with adverse side effects ranging from intolerance to toxicity. Furthermore, the costs associated with conventional approach of managing malaria are arguably high especially for persons living in low-income countries, hence the need for alternative and complementary approaches. Medicinal plants offer a viable alternative because of their few associated side effects, are arguably cheaper, and are easily accessible. Based on the fact that studies involving antimalarial medicinal plants as potential sources of efficacious and cost-effective pharmacotherapies are far between, this research was designed to investigate antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of organic and aqueous extracts of selected plants used by Embu traditional medicine practitioners to treat malaria. The studied plants included Erythrina abyssinica (stem bark), Schkuhria pinnata (whole plant), Sterculia africana (stem bark), Terminalia brownii (leaves), Zanthoxylum chalybeum (leaves), Leonotis mollissima (leaves), Carissa edulis (leaves), Tithonia diversifolia (leaves and flowers), and Senna didymobotrya (leaves and pods). In vitro antiplasmodial activity studies of organic and water extracts were carried out against chloroquine-sensitive (D6) and chloroquine-resistance (W2) strains of Plasmodium falciparum. In vivo antiplasmodial studies were done by Peter's four-day suppression test to test for their in vivo antimalarial activity against P. berghei. Finally, cytotoxic effects and safety of the studied plant extracts were evaluated using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) rapid calorimetric assay technique. The water and methanolic extracts of T. brownii and S. africana and dichloromethane extracts of E. abyssinica, S. pinnata, and T. diversifolia leaves revealed high in vitro antiplasmodial activities (IC50 ≤ 10 μg/ml). Further, moderate in vivo antimalarial activities were observed for water and methanolic extracts of L. mollissima and S. africana and for dichloromethane extracts of E. abyssinica and T. diversifolia leaves. In this study, aqueous extracts of T. brownii and S. africana demonstrated high antiplasmodial activity and high selectivity indices values (SI ≥ 10) and were found to be safe. It was concluded that T. brownii and S. africana aqueous extracts were potent antiplasmodial agents. Further focused studies geared towards isolation of active constituents and determination of in vivo toxicities to ascertain their safety are warranted.

Determination of Antioxidant Value and Chemical Groups in Selected Medicinal Plants Used for Conditions Associated with Herpes Simplex and Herpes Zoster Infections in Kakamega County, Kenya

Aims: To Determine antioxidant value and chemical groups in selected medicinal plants used for conditions associated with Herpes simplex and Herpes zoster infections in Mukhwa sub-location, Kakamega County, Kenya.&#x0D; Study Design: A qualitative ethnobotanical survey for plant identification and chemical analysis for antioxidant assay and chemical group detection.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Plant samples were collected in Mukhwa sub-location in September 2014. Sample processing and chemical group detection was carried out at the Center of Traditional Medicine and Drug Research of Kenya Medical Research Institute. Antioxidant assay was carried out at the Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences of the Kenya Medical Training College.&#x0D; Methodology: All 12 Community Health Workers, comprising 7 females and 5 males, were interviewed for identification of plant species. Antioxidant assay was carried out using the 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) reduction assay and detection of flavonoids, terpenoids, alkanoids, saponins and phenols carried out using physicho-chemical methods.&#x0D; Results: Caesalpinia decapetala, Garcinia buchananii and Entada abyssinica, were the most potent sources of antioxidant with the concentration giving 50% DPPH reduction (RSa50) of 50, 20 and 10 µg/ml, respectively. The most abundant chemical groups were; alkaloids in Schkuhria pinnata, terpenoids in E. abyssinica, flavonoids in G. buchananii, the latter also contained the highest amount of phenols.&#x0D; Conclusion: The findings of antioxidant and chemical groups in selected medicinal plants support their use for HIV conditions.

Is the soil seed bank a reliable source for passive restoration of bush-cleared semi-arid rangelands of South Africa?

BackgroundBush clearing of encroached rangelands is crucial for restoration of herbaceous cover and diversity. Regeneration after bush clearing depends largely on the soil seed bank (SSB) size and composition. To assess the potential of the SSB to facilitate post-clearing herbaceous restoration, we examined the SSB density, composition and diversity and similarity between SSB and aboveground vegetation (AGV).MethodsThe study was conducted in semi-arid rangelands of Maseding and Kgomokgomo in North-West Province of South Africa. In each rangeland, all woody plants in three 1250 m2 plots were cut using saws and loppers, with the stumps treated with picloram. Paired observations were conducted in cleared and uncleared microsites. Soil samples were collected at three depths (0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm) in each microsite in April (pre-treatment), August, October and December 2016 and in April and August 2017. SSB was assessed using seedling emergence method, whereas pre- and post-clearing surveys of AGV were conducted in February 2016 and 2017, respectively.ResultsCleared microsites had significantly (p < 0.01) higher seed bank densities (1872 and 693 seeds m-2 at Maseding and Kgomokgomo, respectively) relative to uncleared microsites in August 2017, with grasses accounting for higher densities than other plant functional groups in the upper 0–10 cm. Pioneer grasses (Aristida congesta subsp. barbicollis, Brachiaria eruciformis and Tragus berteronianus) and invasive forbs (Bidens pilosa and Schkuhria pinnata) dominated the SSB in cleared microsites at Maseding, whereas succulents (Portulaca spp.) and pioneer grasses (T. berteronianus and Urochloa mosambicensis) were abundant at Kgomokgomo in August 2017. SSB and AGV were dissimilar until December 2016; thereafter, similarity increased significantly (p < 0.05) in cleared microsites (Sørensen’s coefficient = 0.60 to 0.66 at Maseding and 0.43 to 0.52 at Kgomokgomo) compared to uncleared microsites. Species diversity was highest in August 2016 and April 2017 at Maseding, but it did not differ between two microsites (p > 0.05). At Kgomokgomo, SSB was more diverse in cleared than uncleared microsites in April and August 2017.ConclusionHigh seed bank densities in the upper soil layer in cleared microsites would promote passive restoration, but regeneration is likely to be initiated by early successional species. However, close monitoring and eradication of invasive forbs and succulents is necessary following bush clearing. The tendency of SSB resembling AGV over time in cleared microsites signifies that seed production from AGV is important for passive restoration following bush clearing.

Medicinal uses of alien plants cultivated and managed in homegardens of Limpopo province, South Africa

Alien plant species cultivated and managed in homegardens are important sources of herbal medicines in many developing countries. The objective of this study was to document medicinal uses of alien plants cultivated and managed in homegardens of Limpopo province of South Africa. Ethnobotanical information such as species used, method of preparation and administration were collected from 300 participants using semi-structured questionnaires. Thereafter, quantitative ethnobotanical index relative frequency of citation (RFC) was calculated. A total of 75 species belonging to 37 families were recorded. Popular alien plants with RFC values >0.3 included Schkuhria pinnata, Ricinus communis, Moringa oleifera, Cannabis sativa, Carica papaya, Musa sapientum, Ocimum basillium and Solanum mauritianum. Documented species were used to treat and manage 38 medical ailments such as diabetes mellitus, injuries, wounds, skin rash, stomach-ache, chest complaints, diarrhoea, cough, gonorrhoea and tuberculosis. The use of these species as alternative sources of medicines could alleviate harvesting pressure on wild indigenous plant species, thereby enhancing plant biodiversity of the province.

Acaricidal activity of the aqueous and hydroethanolic extracts of 15 South African plants against Rhipicephalus turanicus and their toxicity on human liver and kidney cells.

Hot water and hydroethanolic (70:30) extracts were prepared from 15 plant species, which were investigated to discover eco-friendly and less expensive tick control methods as an alternative to synthetic acaricides. A contact bioassay was used to determine the acaricidal activity of these extracts against the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus turanicus (Acari: Ixodidae) at a concentration of 20% (200 mg/mL). The hydroethanolic extracts had better activity than the hot water extracts against R. turanicus. The hydroethanolic extract from Tabernaemontana elegans (leaves) had the best mortality (87.0%). This was followed by Calpurnia aurea (stems) with a mortality of 75.0%, Schkuhria pinnata (whole plant) with a mortality of 67.0% and Aloe rupestris (leaves) with a mortality of 66.6%. The toxicity of the plant extracts was also investigated and it was found that most of the hydroethanolic and hot water extracts were either safe or very safe on human Vero kidney and liver HepG2 cells. From this study, it was evident that botanicals have the potential to be developed as environmentally benign natural acaricides against R. turanicus.

Isolation and characterisation of sesquiterpene lactones from Schkuhria pinnata and their antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities

Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell is used traditionally to treat a number of diseases linked with bacterial infections and inflammation such as eye infections, diarrhoea, diabetes and stomach problems. Despite these uses, there is still insufficient information on the isolation and evaluation of active compounds from this plant. Thus, the study was aimed at identification and characterisation of the antibacterial and anti-inflammatory active extracts of Schkuhria pinnata. Antibacterial activity was evaluated by the micro-broth dilution method. Bioassay-guided fractionation aided the isolation of four compounds from the dichloromethane extracts. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated using NMR data. The compounds were further tested for antibacterial, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory activity using serial dilutions. Four sesquiterpene lactones were identified, 6α-[4′,5′-dihydroxytigloyloxy]-inuviscolide 1 and, 3-desacetyl-3-isovaleroyleucannabinolide 2, eucannabinolide 3 and 6α-[4′,5′-dihydroxytigloyloxy]-isoinuviscolide 4. These compounds exhibited less antibacterial activity as compared to the crude extracts and fractions. Anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities were also demonstrated. The activities reported for the extracts support the traditional uses of this plant for treatment of infections linked with microorganisms and inflammatory related disorders.

Ethnobotanical study of curative plants used by traditional healers to treat rhinitis in the Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Studies focusing on plants used medicinally to heal and manage rhinitis are very scarce in Africa and elsewhere. To document plants used by traditional healers (THs) in the treatment and management of rhinitis and related symptoms in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Data was gathered using a semi structured interviews with 105 THs in the Limpopo Province, supplemented by field expeditions for plant specimen collection and observation. 63 plant species from 59 genera distributed across 40 botanical families, mainly the Asteraceae (7 spp.) and Euphorbiaceae (6 spp.) were therapeutically used by THs. Overall, 77 herbal recipes (87%=mono and 12.9%=poly), mainly prepared from roots (55.5%) and leaves (19%) were recorded. Most of these recipes were processed via pounding (59.7%) and boiling (20.7%). Oral (44.1%) and nasal (33.7%) was the preferred modes of dispensing remedies by THs. Artemisia afra, Clerodendrum ternatum, Cryptocarya transvaalensis, Enicostema axillare, Kalanchoe brachyloba, Lasiosiphon caffer, Lippia javanica, Schkuhria pinnata, Securidaca longepedunculata, Spirostachys africana, Stylochaeton natalensis and Zanthoxylum capense were the most widely used and preferred species for treatment of rhinitis and/or related symptom by all questioned THs. This study is the first to document plants used traditionally to treat rhinitis in Africa. Therefore, it provides a baseline data on the plants used to heal rhinitis in the Limpopo Province. Finding of this study can be used as apedestal for further investigation in to effective plant-based anti-rhinitis drugs.

In vitro antiplasmodial, antitrypanosomal and antileishmanial activities of selected medicinal plants from Ugandan flora: Refocusing into multi-component potentials

Ethnopharmacological relevanceSeven medicinal plants from Ugandan flora, namely Entada abyssinica, Khaya anthotheca, Vernonia amygdalina, Baccharoides adoensis, Schkuhria pinnata, Entandropragma utile and Momordica foetida, were selected in this study. They are used to treat conditions and infections ranging from inflammations, pains and fevers to viruses, bacteria, protozoans and parasites. Two of the plants, V. amygdalina and M. foetida, are also used as human food or relish, while others are important in ethnoveterinary practices and in zoopharmacognosy in the wild. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro antiplasmodial, antitrypanosomal and antileishmanial activities, along with cytotoxicity of the multi-component extracts of these plants. Materials and methodsDifferent parts of the plants were prepared and serially extracted with hexane, petroleum ether, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, methanol and double distilled water. Solvent free extracts were assayed for in vitro inhibition against four reference parasite strains, Plasmodium falciparum (K1), Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (STIB 900), Trypanosoma cruzi (Talahuen C2C4) and Leishmania donovani (MHOM-ET-67/L82) using standard methods. Toxicity was assessed against L6 skeletal fibroblast and mouse peritoneal macrophage (J774) cells and selectivity indices (SIs) calculated for the most active extracts. ResultsThe strongest activities, demonstrating median inhibitory concentration (IC50) values ≤ 2 μg/ml, were observed for the dichloromethane and petroleum ether extracts of K. anthotheca, B. adoensis and S. pinnata. Overall, IC50 values ranged from < 1 μg/ml to > 90 μg/ml. Out of 22 extracts demonstrating IC50s < 20 μg/ml, seven were against T. b. rhodesiense (IC50: 1.6–16.2 μg/ml), six against T. cruzi (IC50: 2.1–18.57 μg/ml), none against L. donovani (IC50: falling > 3.3 and >10 μg/ml), and nine against P. falciparum (IC50: 0.96 μg/ml to 4.69 μg/ml). Selectivity indices (SI) calculated for the most active extracts ranged from <1.00 to 94.24. However, the B. adoensis leaf dichloromethane extract (a) was equipotent (IC50 = 3.3 μg/ml) against L. donovani and L6 cells respectively, indicating non-specific selection. Trypanosome and Plasmodium parasites were comparatively more sensitive to the test extracts. ConclusionsThe benefits achieved from the seven tested plant species as traditional ethnomedicinal and ethnoveterinary therapies or in zoopharmacognosy against infections and conditions of animals in the wild are strongly supported by results of this study. The synergy of plant extracts, so achieved by concerted actions of the ligands, produces adequate perturbation of targets in the four parasite genera, resulting in the strong potencies exhibited by low IC50 values. The total inhibitory effect, achieved as a sum of perturbations contributed by each participating compound in the extract, minimises toxic effects of the compounds as seen in the high SI's obtained with some extracts. Those extracts demonstrating SI ≥ 4 form promising candidates for further cell-based and system pharmacology studies.

Antiprotozoal Sesquiterpene Lactones and Other Constituents from Tarchonanthus camphoratus and Schkuhria pinnata.

In continuation of a search for new antiprotozoal agents from plants of the family Asteraceae, Tarchonanthus camphoratus and Schkuhria pinnata have been investigated. By following the promising in vitro activity of the dichloromethane extracts from their aerial parts, bioassay-guided chromatographic isolation yielded two known sesquiterpene lactones (1 and 2) from T. camphoratus and 20 known compounds of this type from S. pinnata. From the latter, a new eudesmanolide, (1R*,5S*,6R*,7R*,8R*,10R*)-1-hydroxy-8-[5″-hydroxy-4'-(2″-hydroxyisovaleroyloxy)tigloyloxy]-3-oxoeudesma-11(13)-en-6,12-olide (3), and two new germacranolides, 3β-(2″-hydroxyisovaleroyloxy)-8β-(3-furoyloxy)costunolide (14) and 1(10)-epoxy-3β-hydroxy-8β-[5'-hydroxy-4'-(2″-hydroxyisovaleroyloxy)tigloyloxy]costunolide (16), were obtained. Additionally, the flavonoid pectolinarigenin (24) and 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethoxybenzenepropanol (25) were also isolated from S. pinnata. The compounds were characterized by analysis of 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic and HR/MS data. In vitro antitrypanosomal activity and cytotoxicity against mammalian cells (L6 cell line) were evaluated for all the compounds. Santhemoidin A (13) and 3β-(2″-hydroxyisovaleroyloxy)-8β-(3-furoyloxy)costunolide (14) were the most active compounds found in this study, with IC50 values of 0.10 and 0.13 μM against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense trypomastigotes and selectivity indices of 20.5 and 29.7, respectively.

Investigation of the acaricidal activity of the acetone and ethanol extracts of 12 South African plants against the adult ticks of Rhipicephalus turanicus.

The acaricidal activity of acetone and ethanol extracts of 12 plant species was evaluated using the contact method on Rhipicephalus turanicus (Acari: Ixodidae) ticks at an initial concentration of 20% (200 mg/mL). Eight of the 12 plants had mortality greater than 50% and the acetone extracts had better acaricidal activity than the ethanol extracts. The acetone extract of Calpurnia aurea (leaves and flowers) had the highest corrected mortality (CM) of 92.2% followed by Schkuhria pinnata (whole plant) with a CM of 88.9%, Ficus sycomorus (bark and stems) 86.7% and Senna italica subsp. arachoides (roots, leaves and fruits) 83.3%. Selected extracts were tested at five different concentrations using the adult immersion test. From dose–response assays, EC50 values of 61.82 mg/mL, 115.21 mg/mL and 161.02 mg/mL were obtained for the acetone extracts of S. pinnata (whole plant), S. italica subsp. arachoides (roots, leaves and fruits) and C. aurea (leaves and flowers) respectively. The ethanol extract of Monsonia angustifolia (whole plant) had the highest CM of 97.8% followed by S. pinnata (whole plant) with a CM of 86.7%, C. aurea (leaves and flowers) 81.1% and Cleome gynandra (leaves) 77.8%. There is potential for the development of environmentally benign botanicals as natural acaricides against R. turanicus.