Schizophrenic Individuals Research Articles

SOME CONSTITUENTS OF THE URINE OF NORMAL AND SCHIZOPHRENIC INDIVIDUALS: PART II

A comparison has been made of the compounds detectable on two-dimensional paper chromatograms by their ultraviolet absorption or fluorescence, or by development with diazotized sulphanilics acid (DSA), in extracts of the urines of normal and schizophrenic individuals. No significant difference could be detected. Of the six DSA coupling compounds reported in Part I (1) to have a possible connection with schizophrenia, only four were detected in this survey and their distribution in the urine samples does not suggest that any have a connection with the disease. Most of the compounds reported in Part I were found again in this survey along with 70 DSA or Altman-positive new materials of which many were present in only a few samples. A small number of additional compounds were detected in the urine of schizophrenics on Chlorpromazine or Reserpine therapy. No significant difference between the human pseudocholine esterase inhibitory properties of the extracts from normal and schizophrenic urines was observed.

SOME CONSTITUENTS OF THE URINE OF NORMAL AND SCHIZOPHRENIC INDIVIDUALS: PART II

A comparison has been made of the compounds detectable on two-dimensional paper chromatograms by their ultraviolet absorption or fluorescence, or by development with diazotized sulphanilics acid (DSA), in extracts of the urines of normal and schizophrenic individuals. No significant difference could be detected. Of the six DSA coupling compounds reported in Part I (1) to have a possible connection with schizophrenia, only four were detected in this survey and their distribution in the urine samples does not suggest that any have a connection with the disease. Most of the compounds reported in Part I were found again in this survey along with 70 DSA or Altman-positive new materials of which many were present in only a few samples. A small number of additional compounds were detected in the urine of schizophrenics on Chlorpromazine or Reserpine therapy. No significant difference between the human pseudocholine esterase inhibitory properties of the extracts from normal and schizophrenic urines was observed.

SOME CONSTITUENTS OF THE URINE OF NORMAL AND SCHIZOPHRENIC INDIVIDUALS

The compounds present in urine pools from schizophrenic and normal male individuals and which give colors with diazotized sulphanilic acid, and which can be extracted with ethyl acetate or eluted with aqueous phenol from charcoal adsorbates, have been compared and a number identified. Of the over 80 compounds detected only three, which do not contribute markedly to the over-all coloring pattern, have appeared uniquely in the three urine preparations from schizophrenics. Urocanic, 2-acetamidobenzoic, and imidazole-4-acetic acid have been chromatographically detected in human urine.

SOME CONSTITUENTS OF THE URINE OF NORMAL AND SCHIZOPHRENIC INDIVIDUALS

The compounds present in urine pools from schizophrenic and normal male individuals and which give colors with diazotized sulphanilic acid, and which can be extracted with ethyl acetate or eluted with aqueous phenol from charcoal adsorbates, have been compared and a number identified. Of the over 80 compounds detected only three, which do not contribute markedly to the over-all coloring pattern, have appeared uniquely in the three urine preparations from schizophrenics. Urocanic, 2-acetamidobenzoic, and imidazole-4-acetic acid have been chromatographically detected in human urine.

The performance of schizophrenic and normal individuals following frustration.

The performance of schizophrenic and normal individuals following frustration.

PRELIMINARY REPORT OF AN EXPERIENCE IN THE GROUP PSYCHOTHERAPY OF SCHIZOPHRENICS

This experience may be discussed in the following terms: 1. It demonstrates that schizophrenic individuals can be led into psychotherapeutically effective relationships with each other in a group setting, through the exercise of a special type of group leadership. 2. The establishment of a therapeutic atmosphere in this type of group is marked by the gradual spread of a way of behaving or group mores accepted by all the members, of helpfulness, acceptance, awareness, and a desire for understanding of the other patients' problems, and, through that, to understanding of their own. 3. This atmosphere is established through the leadership of the doctor working through example and by the adoption by the patient, in his relationships with other patients, of the doctor's way of relating to him. The doctor needs to be as aware as possible of the dynamics of the group as a whole and of members to each other and to the group. He needs to be ready when necessary to protect the individual patient and the group from the impact of the intense emotion associated with the deep-seated disturbance of the psychotic. 4. The ability of one schizophrenic to understand another's defenses against anxiety results, in this therapeutic atmosphere, in the bringing to awareness of the meaning of their interpersonal relationships and the uncovering of earlier experiences associated with the patient's anxieties. 5. The therapeutic process resulted at first in an increase in hostile, depressed, and manic-like reactions, but, within a few months, there was established a gradual amelioration of the patients' social isolation, boredom, recrimination, and combativeness, and the substitution of a more cooperative atmosphere. The individuals also showed their improvement by an increasing ability to tolerate reality without recourse to psychotic defenses.

THE FRUSTRATION THRESHOLD

The experiment to determine the threshold of frustration was conducted with normal, neurotic and psychotic subjects. It was difficult to present a problem which was equally motivating, and which would always result in frustration at the point of failure. Preliminary experimentation showed that a learning situation in which each subject was psychologically prepared to consider success imperative was the best method of creating frustration. It was much easier to create frustration in the children than in the adults, and the reactions of the children were much more consistent. The difficulty of frustrating adults was probably due to two factors, the rationalization of their failures and the inability to motivate them in the task presented. Most of the children were easily motivated in a learning situation, obviously because they were accustomed to respond to learning situations in school. The adults, however, evaded the frustration crises because they tended to create many reasons why they could not complete the tasks successfully. The threshold of frustration was measured in terms of the rapidity with which frustration could be induced and the difficulty of the task which produced it. The criteria of frustration were: 1. Disruption of the integrated and planned activity. 2. Haphazard activity involving the hands, arms and body. 3. Significant changes of the physiological reactions, such as the rhythm and amplitude of the brain waves, skin resistance, respiration, blood pressure and pulse. The most consistent physiological reactions which correlated with frustration were skin resistance as measured by the photopolygraph, and respiration. Changes in the brain waves were not as significant as the other measures, although there was a marked and consistent difference between the schizophrenic and the normal. The electroencephalographic tracings in the schizophrenic individuals were unusually stable, with few changes in rhythm or amplitude as contrasted with the many variations in the normal and neurotic individuals. The threshold of frustration was significantly higher in all of the schizophrenic subjects than in the neurotic or the normal. The neurotic threshold was quite variable, and was lower than in the normal. Whether the threshold of frustration of the neurotic individual correlates with the severity of the neurosis could not be adequately ascertained because there was no way of clinically quantifying a neurotic condition. No claim can be made regarding the diagnostic value of the threshold of frustration. It is not too presumptuous, however, to claim that it can be a valuable adjunct to a clinical diagnosis. It may be especially valuable because the threshold can be determined objectively and quantitatively, although one must be aware of the inevitable difficulties involved in determining frustration in an artificial laboratory situation. The method may be especially valuable in those cases where the clinical data are not sufficiently adequate and where differentiation between individuals is necessary.

Effect of Pain on the Heart Rate of Normal and Schizophrenic Individuals

(1937). Effect of Pain on the Heart Rate of Normal and Schizophrenic Individuals. The Journal of General Psychology: Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 273-289.

Studies on the Personality Structure of Schizophrenic Individuals: I. The Accessibility of Schizophrenics to Environmental Influences

Studies on the Personality Structure of Schizophrenic Individuals: I. The Accessibility of Schizophrenics to Environmental Influences

Studies on the Personality Structure of Schizophrenic Individuals: II. Reaction to interrupted Tasks

(1937). Studies on the Personality Structure of Schizophrenic Individuals: II. Reaction to interrupted Tasks. The Journal of General Psychology: Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 179-196.

HEREDITY RELATIONS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Statistical evidence and the results of the analyses of individual families in which schizophrenia occurs indicate that heredity is an important factor to be considered in the etiology of schizophrenia. In a series of 150 unselected cases of schizophrenia there were 117, or 78.01 per cent, that had heredity tainting factors, usually considered as of significance in the heredity of the psychoses. This is about equal to that found for psychoses in general and considerably greater than that of the non-psychotic, 78.01:67. It is slightly less than has been found in manic depressive psychoses, 78.01:84.13, and in epilepsy, 78.01:81.26. The most frequent tainting factor is psychoses. These occur among the mental abnormalities of the antecedents and members of the families in a percentage of 43.22. This is about three times greater than has been found in those who are not psychotic. It is about the same as occurs among the psychotic in general, 43.22:45.9. It is about equal to that existing in the heredity of manic depressive psychoses, 43.22:43.86; and much greater than occurs in epilepsy, 43.22:22.5. Abnormal character occurs more frequently among the antecedents and members of the families of schizophrenic patients than in any other form of psychosis. It occurs as a tainting factor nearly twice as frequently as in manic depressive psychoses, 21.24:11.5 and somewhat more than exists among the insane in general, 21.24:18.8. Mental abnormalities occur much less frequently among the parents of schizophrenic patients than in the psychotic in general. Parents of manic depressive patients are much more frequently tainted with mental abnormalities than are those of the schizophrenic, 25.64:15.51. Schizophrenia has its heaviest heredity tainting in antecedents who are in indirect relationship to the patient. Indirect tainting in schizophrenia is more than twice as great as in manic depressive psychoses, 38.3:18.09; and much greater than in the psychotic in general. Schizophrenic patients are more tainted in atavistic relationship, i. e., grandparents, than are those who have manic depressive psychoses, 25.64:15.5. The evidence obtained from the application of mendelian theories to the investigation of the heredity course of schizophrenia tends to indicate that the transmission of the factors for the creation of the anlage to schizophrenia follows the course of a mendelian recessive character. The factor that is transmitted seems to be of complex rather than simple mendelian character. Specific qualities of abnormality of temperament and character, that in general correspond to those designated as schizoid, occur with such frequency among members of families in which schizophrenia exists, that the thought is suggested that these may stand in some relation to the genetic course of this disorder. Non-schizophrenic psychoses and mental abnormalities occur among parents and families of schizophrenic individuals to a degree that suggests polymorphous heredity relations in this disorder. The proportional frequency with which these occur indicates that this inter-relation cannot be regarded as accidental but rather as something that seems to be in intimate relation with the heredity course of schizophrenia. One must, however, in the course of a mendelian recessive character, such as seems to exist in schizophrenia, give consideration to the possibilities of the transmission of latent qualities which may not be outwardly manifested but yet be concerned in the production of the anlage to schizophrenia of a descendant. This makes possible a similar quality of heredity. At the present time the existence of polymorphous heredity in schizophrenia is neither proved nor disproved. While there is some statistical evidence of the occurrence of anteposition in the heredity course of schizophrenia, a critical consideration of the data on which this is based does not justify the acceptance of this as a regular occurrence. There is no certain evidence that the heredity course in schizophrenia is in any way sex-linked. Consideration of the family stocks in which schizophrenia occurs tends to show the existence of certain specific characteristics that appear as schizophrenic phenotypes or as specific qualities of temperament and character that may be manifested in various members of the family or as a modifying influence in the shaping of the clinical form of psychoses that are not dominantly schizophrenic.