Schematic Information Research Articles

Cognitive Advantage in Sport: The Nature of Perceptual Structures

To extend and clarify the nature of the perceptual processes used by sport experts to perceive schematic sport information, two experiments used schematic football diagrams that varied in structure (structured vs. unstructured) and complexity (complex vs. easy). The primary objective was to examine and characterize the nature of the perceptual structures (chunks) that are initially encoded, stored, and subsequently retrieved. In Experiment 1, compared with nonexperts, experts recalled larger perceptual structures following the initial stimulus presentation of structured stimuli only, replicating the recall findings of previous research in other skill domains. Experiment 2 used a long-term memory recognition task and a sorting task. Experts had superior recall and recognition of structured stimuli only, along with more discriminating sorting criteria of perceptual structures within long-term memory. This suggests that experts possess a highly refined semantic network or organized, structured schematic information. This research extends and clarifies the similarities between the perceptual processes of experts in sport (i.e., football) and experts in skill domains that require obvious cognitive involvement (i.e., chess). The results are discussed with reference to the perceptual and conceptual chunking hypotheses. It is proposed that sport experts' knowledge of a conceptual category enables them to retrieve elements using a "generate-and-test process."

GENDER SCHEMATIC PARAPRAXES IN THE ARTICULATED THOUGHTS OF EX-SMOKERS

The Articulated Thoughts during Simulated Situations (ATSS) para digm for cognitive assessment may be useful for identifying gender schematic information processing. In a study of smoking relapse, several ex-smokers articulated thoughts indicating that they mistook the gender of audiotaped actors whose roles violated sex role stereotypes. The same speakers were never misidentified when portraying more traditional roles. Discussion focused on (a) the possible utility of this finding for research on Gender Schema Theory, and (b) the value of open-ended cognitive assessment methods such as ATSS for enhancing the likelihood of serendipitous findings.

Schematic information processing: Direct marketing and purchase decisions

This article presents a schematic framework for explaining consumers’ cognitive processes involved in evaluating and making purchase decisions of directly marketed products. It argues that schematic representations of the three elements of direct marketing—source, mode, and response—influence consumers’ purchase decisions of directly marketed products. The schematic framework not only facilitates the understanding of the direct exchange process, but also provides guidelines for the development of response-enhancing direct marketing strategies.

Self-relevance and goal-directed processing in the recall and weighting of information about others

The purpose of these studies is twofold: (1) to ascertain whether schemarelevant information about others is recalled better and is accorded greater weight by schematics than by aschematics, and (2) to determine whether perceivers' self-schemas and processing goals during person perception have independent or interactive effects. Experiment 1 presented subjects with either a global or a specific goal. A description of the target contained both information relevant to some of the subjects' self-schemas and information relevant to the specific goal. Schematics better recalled schematic information than did aschematics only in the global goal (impression formation) condition. Subjects in the specific goal conditions best recalled goal-relevant information. In Experiment 2, subjects made either a global or a specific judgment. Target information was self-relevant for half the subjects. The degree to which subjects weighted each type of stimulus information in their judgments was ascertained using a policy capturing paradigm. Schematics weighted schema-relevant information more heavily than did aschematics in both goal conditions. In addition, schematics weighted a trait highly associated to the schematic trait more heavily than did aschematics. The influence of perceivers' goals on the self-schematic processing of information about other persons is discussed.

Memory for schematic and categorical information: A replication and extension of Rabinowitz and Mandler (1983).

Memory for schematic and categorical information: A replication and extension of Rabinowitz and Mandler (1983).

Computer-aided mapping of brain tissue

A computer-microscope system is described for use in capturing accurate, quantitative schematic (map) information from anatomical tissue sections. The system provides a rapid and convenient environment for acquisition and analysis of complex structures spread over large 3-D regions of the tissue. As a consequence of the complexity and subtlety of tissue analysis, most of the data acquisition functions of the system involve tight coupling between the hardware and the microscopist to preserve access to human judgment and intelligence. The instrument profoundly affects the ease and accuracy of neurobiological data analysis, making it practical to address previously inaccessible problems. Examples of data analyzed using the system are shown.

Social cognition in the breadbasket: The effect of schematic information about farmers on farmers’ and nonfarmers’ memory for stories

Three experiments investigated farmers’and nonfarmers’ perceptions about farmers and the effects of these schemata on memory for a story about a character who was or was not identified as a farmer. Experiment 1 identified dimensions on which farmers’ and nonfarmers’ perceptions about farmers differed significantly. This information was used to construct stories, used in Experiments 2A and 2B, about a businessman facing bankruptcy. Half of the stories described Robert in a manner consistent with the farmers’ schema about farmers; the other half described him in a manner consistent with the nonfarmers’ schema about farmers. Another variable, label, identified Robert as a farmer or small businessman or did not identify his occupation. The results showed several complex interactions of the subjects’ schema information, the label, and the content of the story, both under conditions of immediate testing and 2 days later.

Reflection-impulsivity and script-action recall

Script-recall differences between reflective and impulsive subjects were investigated. Using the Bower, Black, and Turner (1979) methodology, it was found that reflective subjects recalled more stated actions than did impulsive subjects regardless of number of instantiations of scripts presented, indicating that cognitive style influences schematic information processing.

Het Schema-Begrip in de Hedendaagse Geheugentheorie

[The Schema Concept in Current Theories of Memory] The schema concept, alternatively indicated as script, frame, proposition, procedure or prototype, has aroused much interest in recent years. The present paper examines the value of these conceptions for the study of human memory. Schemata are knowledge structures residing in the long-term memory store. They contain packages of fixed and variable knowledge. Under certain circumstances such a schema can be identified as being applicable to the current situation. This means that the fixed knowledge part and most of the variable features of the schema match the situation. For the study of human memory the schema-hypothesis suggests two important questions: a. how do schemata affect memory storage and retrieval; b. how and under which conditions do schemata come into existence or do they become modified? As far as the first question is concerned, several models have been developed stating how schematic information is used to support memory storage and retrieval. These models are discussed with respect to their predictive power, and it is concluded that only the attention-elaboration and the schema copy + tag model yield reasonable fits, although neither of them explains all the data. Regarding the second question, some of the responsible mechanisms have been implemented in artificially intelligent programs. This work is briefly discussed. The paper concludes with an overview of some implications for the study of memory, and the functioning of schemata in some domains of applications, viz. communication, eye-witness testimony, and learning to program.

Applying Schema Theory to Foreign Language Reading

ABSTRACT In this article, reading is considered to bean interactive process in which the schematic information a reader possesses for the topic of a given text is as important to adequate comprehension as the information presented on the printed page. When reading in a foreign language, understanding of that language's accompanying culture enables students to approach reading topics from the appropriate cultural perspective. Several classroom activities are described for use before reading, while reading, and after reading.

The effects of schematic memory on imaginal information processing: An empirical assessment

AbstractThe relationship between verbal and nonverbal modes of processing consumer information was examined in an investigation of schematic processing, a predominantly verbal mode, and visual imagery, a nonverbal method of information processing. It was found that individuals with a schema for a marketing event exhibited both a higher incidence and greater vividness of imagery during retrieval than did subjects without a schema. No differences were observed in either the frequency or clarity of images related to actions of varying degrees of abstraction in the event schema. These results indicate interdependence between schematic and imaginal processing consistent with the Cyclical Processing Model (Hampson and Morris 1979). A number of implications, both methodological and strategic, are developed from the observed relationship between imaginal and schematic information processing.

Effect of schema-incongruent information on memory for stereotypical attributes.

Two studies were performed to determine the effect of incongruent information on recall of schematic information in the domain of person memory. Subjects heard descriptions of five sterotypical characters, followed by additional information varying in level of relevance to, and congruence with, the initial information. We measured free recall of the initial information establishing the schema, which included a stereotype label and two highly congruent facts. Results showed that the introduction of information that is highly incongruent with a schema makes schematic information more memorable, under both immediate- and delayed-recall conditions. This effect may be one mechanism by which inappropriate schemata persevere in the face of counterevidence. The pattern of results is found to be more consistent with Hastie's (1980) depth of processing-network associational model of schematic processing (with slight modification) than with Smith and Graesser's (1981) schema-pointer + tag model.

Effect of schema-incongruent information on memory for stereotypical attributes.

Two studies were performed to determine the effect of incongruent information on recall of schematic information in the domain of person memory. Subjects heard descriptions of five sterotypical characters, followed by additional information varying in level of relevance to, and congruence with, the initial information. We measured free recall of the initial information establishing the schema, which included a stereotype label and two highly congruent facts. Results showed that the introduction of information that is highly incongruent with a schema makes schematic information more memorable, under both immediate- and delayed-recall conditions. This effect may be one mechanism by which inappropriate schemata persevere in the face of counterevidence. The pattern of results is found to be more consistent with Hastie's (1980) depth of processing-network associational model of schematic processing (with slight modification) than with Smith and Graesser's (1981) schema-pointer + tag model.

Schematic information, attention, and memory for places.

Recall and recognition of various aspects of three places were studied under incidental and intentional conditions. Data showed that subjects passing through a place incidentally remembered structural features such as walls better than variable features such as furniture. On the other hand, subjects passing through a place knowing they will be tested for memory of its remembered the variable elements better than the structural elements. The results are interpreted in terms of intentionally governed coding.

Schematic information, attention, and memory for places.

Schematic information, attention, and memory for places.

The direct perception of universals: A theory of knowledge acquisition

A theory is presented which proposes that knowledge acquisition involves direct perception of schematic information in the form of structural and transformational invariances. Individual components with salient verbal descriptions are considered conscious place-holders for non-conscious invariant schemes. It is speculated that theories positing mental construction have three related causes: The first is a lack of consciousness of the schema processing capacities of the right hemisphere; the second is the paucity of adequate words to express schematic relationships; and the last involves the dominance of verbal processes in consciousness. Philosophical theories are reviewed and schematic data relevant to biological survival is offered. Applications to education are suggested.

Schematic information processing and perceptions of leadership in problem-solving groups.

Schematic information processing and perceptions of leadership in problem-solving groups.

Schematic information processing and perceptions of leadership in problem-solving groups.

Schematic information processing and perceptions of leadership in problem-solving groups.

Handbook of hydrophone element design technology

This handbook consolidates existing information regarding hydrophone element design. The handbook presents useful working equations and includes graphical and schematic information necessary for selecting designs once system constraints have been specified. The major effort involves designs using piezoelectric ceramics since these are the primary materials used in Navy sonar systems. The handbook contains (1) Introduction, (2) Basic Hydrophone Criteria—electrical, mechanical, and environmental criteria, (3) Energy Conversion Materials—material parameters and stability characteristics of stress and time, (4) Basic Hydrophone Design Considerations—analysis of simple configurations such as cylinders, spheres, and flexural disks; hydrophone characteristics versus physical dimensions; and performance tradeoff criteria, (5) Receiving System Noise Analysis—ambient noise, receiver noise, system optimization, signal-to-noise ratio, effects of cable, magnetic hydrophones, and hydrophone arrays, (6) Special Hydrophone Design Considerations-pressure compensation features, directional hydrophones (pressure gradient and multimode hydrophones), amplifiers, acceleration cancellation features, and shock protection features, and (7) Complementary Materials—end cap materials and fill fluids. [Work supported by NAVELEX.]

Computer Techniques for Solving Electric Circuits for Fault Isolation

We are concerned in this paper with use of a digital computer for automatic checkout and fault isolation of electrical networks. The work reported here represents a refinement and extension of work done in a previous paper. Section 2 to follow gives a discussion of our circuit test philosophy and some of its immediate implications. Section 3 contains a review of previous work giving the required manipulations in compact matrix form. A new program for extended implementation of this procedure is given in section 4. Some results obtained by this program are presented in section 5. Section 6 presents a method whereby all analysis required for electric networks can be performed automatically working only from basic schematic diagram information. Conclusions and some future research plans are outlined in section 7.