Formal Schemata Research Articles

EXPRESS: Does difficulty moderate learning? A Comparative Analysis of the Desirable Difficulties Framework and Cognitive Load Theory.

There is evidence to suggest that variations in difficulty during learning can moderate long-term retention. However, the direction of this effect is under contention throughout the literature. According to both the Desirable Difficulties Framework (DDF) and the Retrieval Effort Hypothesis (REH), increasing difficulty (thus relative effort) during retrieval-based learning can help achieve superior long-term retention. One reason for this is due to improved schema formation following a deeper encoding strategy, allowing for more efficient retrieval techniques. A conflicting theory discussed in this review is the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT). The CLT states that conditions for learning are best when extraneous load is reduced, and intrinsic load is optimised. By doing this, germane resources can focus on schema formation. Whilst both theories consider schema formation key to successful retention, the way in which it is best achieved is conflicting. To date, both theories have yet to be compared despite their commonalities. This review evaluates the aforementioned theories, before proposing a new model of difficulty in learning. The proposed model integrates principles from the DDF, REH, and CLT, incorporating insights from Perceptual Load Theory (PLT). It suggests that task difficulty should be adjusted based on the material's complexity and the learner's expertise. Increasing difficulty benefits low-element-interactivity tasks by enhancing focus and retention, while reducing difficulty in high-element-interactivity tasks prevents cognitive overload.

Schema formation and stimulus-schema discrepancy: A basic unit and its properties.

Research with 2-day-old neonates shows that they create mental representations-schemata-for their experiences and that this cognitive ability is hardwired and functional at birth. This research and studies with older infants indicate that both the formation and the expansion of schemata occur through moderate discrepancies, a concept that Jerome Kagan promoted conceptually and through his research. Discrepancy, as distinct from novelty, is insufficiently acknowledged in the literature on schema theory. The schema is both cognitive and affective and develops in unison in a curvilinear pattern with a gradual onset and exponential expansion. Optimal attentiveness and positive affect occur at the peak of formation and to moderate discrepancies. Redundancy beyond the optimal level produces decreasing interest and positive affect and increasing negative affect resulting in boredom and avoidance. These characteristics of schema development are difficult to study with older children and adults. Rumelhart (1980) regarded the schema as the "building block of cognition" and Kagan (2002) called its expansion through moderate discrepancies an "engine of change" implying widespread application for cognition and behavior throughout life. Kagan urged the search for structure (form) as opposed to function in cognition, and the curvilinear pattern of schema development and its characteristics, it is argued, is the structure he sought. Implications and select applications of schema development and expansion are presented. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Retrospective assessment of parental attitudes versus severity of early maladaptive schemas in a non-clinical population of Polish adults – preliminary reports

Objectives: While from a developmental perspective, a secure bond with a parent is of great importance to a child's functioning, its establishment depends mainly on the caregivers and their parental attitudes – specific strategies or styles that enable the fulfilment of parental responsibilities. The objective of the presented study was to assess the correlation between the early maladaptive schemas and retrospectively assessed parental attitudes. Methods: The study involved 94 people between the ages of 18 and 64 (average age: M=34.84, SD=11.12). Each participant completed a set of the following tools: the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ-S3-PL), the Parent-Child Relationship Questionnaire (PCR), and the Young Parent Inventory (YPI). Both parents’ attitudes were similarly associated with the formation of early maladaptive schemas. For both mothers and fathers, loving and rejecting attitudes had the most numerous associations with the formation of early maladaptive schemas. Conclusions: 1. In a retrospective evaluation of the subjects, both parents had a similar impact on the formation of domains of early maladaptive schemas. The Results: only statistically significant differences occurred in the domain of Impaired Autonomy and Performance. Mothers had a stronger influence on the formation of schemas in this group. 2. For both mothers and fathers, loving (L) and rejecting (R) attitudes had the most numerous associations with the formation of early maladaptive schemas. Keywords: early maladaptive schemas, parental attitudes, attachment

Unmet Needs, Minority Stress and Mental Health Outcomes Among Transgender Individuals: The Mediating Role of Schema Domains.

Exposure to gender-related minority stressors, the negative experiences and beliefs that stem from anti-trans stigma increases transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people's vulnerability to experiencing poor mental health outcomes. This study examined if the relationships between experiences of minority stress and mental health outcomes were mediated by early maladaptive schemas: mental representations shaping the way people view themselves, others and the world. Drawing from a schema therapy perspective, the study additionally examined if caregivers' failure to meet TGD people's core emotional needs was associated with mental health outcomes and if schemas similarly mediated these relationships. A total of 619 TGD adults completed an online survey about early maladaptive schemas, core emotional needs, gender-related minority stress and psychological distress and wellbeing. Causal mediation analyses indicated that caregivers who did not meet TGD people's core emotional needs and greater experiences of minority stress were associated with increased distress and lower wellbeing. These relationships were mediated by schema severity, particularly the disconnection and rejection and impaired autonomy domains. These findings provide empirical support for the schema therapy model's assumption that unmet core emotional needs are associated with schema formation. For TGD people, maladaptive beliefs about the self, others and world can form in response to manifestations of anti-trans stigma within the individual, their interpersonal relationships, community and broader society. Caregivers' failure to meet needs, plus experiences of minority stress throughout the individual's system, leads to greater distress and lower wellbeing; however, clinical interventions targeting schemas may improve outcomes for this at-risk group.

자살충동 노인에 관한 사례 분석: 네트워크와 매트릭스를 활용

This study conducted a case analysis based on the results of psychological counseling for an elderly person who felt suicidal at a senior welfare center in Seoul. Accordingly, through this study, we aim to prevent suicidal impulses by discovering cases where people feel suicidal impulses. As an analysis method, cases where counseling was conducted were analyzed using matrices and networks through family tree analysis of a systematic integrated model. A total of 9 sessions of psychological counseling were conducted for the case patient from March to July 2023. Five sessions of counseling were conducted for the case patient, two sessions of counseling for the case patient's wife, and two sessions of couple counseling. As a result of the analysis, the problems of the family of origin and vulnerable environmental factors that influenced the case patient's suicidal impulse were identified. The suicidal elderly person's primary caregiver changed from his or her family of origin, and there was a change in the dynamic environment that inevitably led to a very low self-esteem. Additionally, this provides the case patient with a vulnerable growth environment, resulting in the formation of unstable attachments and schemas that include excessive defense mechanisms and aggression. Based on the analysis results, it was proposed to select cases with vulnerabilities in the family of origin, provide regular psychological counseling to the elderly who are vulnerable to suicidal impulses, and develop and implement a suicide prevention program accordingly.

Approaching digital genre composing through reflective pedagogical praxis

With the development of Web 2.0 we have witnessed an ever-expanding repertoire of digital genres. This brings with it new communicative needs and invites us to reflect on possible ways of teaching digital multimodal composing in EAP courses. Using case study research and genre theory as a heuristic, this article critically discusses the implementation of a pedagogical practice that sought to raise the students' rhetorical consciousness of aspects of genre continuity, evolution and innovation, focusing on digital genres of professional and public science communication. The examination of the digital texts composed by the students shows that several factors (genre awareness, genre knowledge transfer, reliance on acquired content and formal schemata and interdiscursive performance) may play an important role when recontextualising specialised content across genres. The study findings also suggest that while rhetorical consciousness facilitates the processes of recontextualising and repurposing content to reach broad audiences, L1 transfer could negatively influence digital genre composing. In light of the findings, I advocate explicit instruction in “metageneric texts” and methodologies for raising awareness of “inter-genre-al” forms across connected genres online. This instruction could support the students’ professional development and the participatory framework for scientific research advocated by the Open Science agenda.

Knowledge graphs for seismic data and metadata

The increasing scale and diversity of seismic data, and the growing role of big data in seismology, has raised interest in methods to make data exploration more accessible. This paper presents the use of knowledge graphs (KGs) for representing seismic data and metadata to improve data exploration and analysis, focusing on usability, flexibility, and extensibility. Using constraints derived from domain knowledge in seismology, we define a semantic model of seismic station and event information used to construct the KGs. Our approach utilizes the capability of KGs to integrate data across many sources and diverse schema formats. We use schema-diverse, real-world seismic data to construct KGs with millions of nodes, and illustrate potential applications with three big-data examples. Our findings demonstrate the potential of KGs to enhance the efficiency and efficacy of seismological workflows in research and beyond, indicating a promising interdisciplinary future for this technology.

Language, conceptualization, and cultural linguistics. The role of culture in the formation of cognitive schemas in languages

Language, conceptualization, and cultural linguistics. The role of culture in the formation of cognitive schemas in languages

Astrocyte and L-lactate in the anterior cingulate cortex modulate schema memory and neuronal mitochondrial biogenesis

Astrocyte-derived L-lactate was shown to confer beneficial effects on synaptic plasticity and cognitive functions. However, how astrocytic Gi signaling in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) modulates L-lactate levels and schema memory is not clear. Here, using chemogenetic approach and well-established behavioral paradigm, we demonstrate that astrocytic Gi pathway activation in the ACC causes significant impairments in flavor-place paired associates (PAs) learning, schema formation, and PA memory retrieval in rats. It also impairs new PA learning even if a prior associative schema exists. These impairments are mediated by decreased L-lactate in the ACC due to astrocytic Gi activation. Concurrent exogenous L-lactate administration bilaterally into the ACC rescues these impairments. Furthermore, we show that the impaired schema memory formation is associated with a decreased neuronal mitochondrial biogenesis caused by decreased L-lactate level in the ACC upon astrocytic Gi activation. Our study also reveals that L-lactate-mediated mitochondrial biogenesis is dependent on monocarboxylate transporter 2 (MCT2) and NMDA receptor activity – discovering a previously unrecognized signaling role of L-lactate. These findings expand our understanding of the role of astrocytes and L-lactate in the brain functions.

Dysfunctional Schemas from Preadolescence as One Major Avenue by Which Meaning Has Impact on Mental Health

A main way by which meaning influences mental health is by the formation of interpersonal schemas that specify what to expect from others and how to treat them. Particularly during preadolescence (a developmental phase focused on interpersonal skills), young people living in a stressful or hurtful environment can form atypical schemas that can help them survive but that produce serious problems when later applied to newly forming adult relationships. We provide three case studies illustrating this process. A boy learned to cope by withdrawing from social interaction and excelling in schoolwork. A girl learned to cope by denying her own needs and sacrificing herself for the welfare of others. Another girl coped by pervasive distrust of others and by becoming assertively independent. These children learned well enough to adapt to these dysfunctional relationships so as to suffer as little as possible, and they even developed some personal skills and resources. However, the rigid schemas had a destructive impact on their adult relationships. Proposals for interventions to change meaning and behaviors are discussed.

Schema formation in a neural population subspace underlies learning-to-learn in flexible sensorimotor problem-solving.

Learning-to-learn, a progressive speedup of learning while solving a series of similar problems, represents a core process of knowledge acquisition that draws attention in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence. To investigate its underlying brain mechanism, we trained a recurrent neural network model on arbitrary sensorimotor mappings known to depend on the prefrontal cortex. The network displayed an exponential time course of accelerated learning. The neural substrate of a schema emerges within a low-dimensional subspace of population activity; its reuse in new problems facilitates learning by limiting connection weight changes. Our work highlights the weight-driven modifications of the vector field, which determines the population trajectory of a recurrent network and behavior. Such plasticity is especially important for preserving and reusing the learned schema in spite of undesirable changes of the vector field due to the transition to learning a new problem; the accumulated changes across problems account for the learning-to-learn dynamics.

Reflection in the structure of cognition: its modes and types. Reflexive switching and the concept of epigenesis of a priori forms: the onion model of time

The paper is devoted to the role (function) of reflection in cognition and its modes (types) as part of the cognitive ability. Along with logical and transcendental reflection, Kant's transcendental shift (turn) is discussed, as well as the role of reflection in Kant's schematism (the ability to judge) and the formation of schemas. Particular attention is paid to another mode of reflection – reflexive switching, which underlies not only the formation of pure rational concepts and schemes (Kant's concept of epigenesis; metaphysical deduction of categories), but the epigenesis of a priori forms of sensibility of space and (especially) time, connected with the Kantian synthesis of apprehension in the intuition. The article proposes an original conception of time, the so-called onion model of time, which is based on a reflexive (iterative) apperceptive ladder.

Young's early maladaptive schemas versus psychopathic traits in a non-clinical population.

There is now evidence that certain psychopathic personality components have their roots in a dysfunctional family of origin. Looking at this phenomenon from the perspective of Jeffrey E. Young's theory, we can surmise that the early negative experiences of people with psychopathic personality traits may have influenced the formation of specific maladaptive schemas. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between Young's early maladaptive schemas and psychopathic personality traits in a non-clinical population. The study involved 150 individuals aged 18 to 45. Eighty-six percent of the study group were women. The Psychopathic Personality Traits Scale - Revised (PPTS-R) and the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM), designed to test the intensity of psychopathic traits in the study group, were used. Young's Schema Questionnaire (YSQ-S3-PL) was applied to measure Young's early maladaptive schemas. Statistical analyses revealed significant positive correlations between the severity of psychopathy as measured by the TriPM and the following schemas: Emotional Deprivation, Mistrust/Abuse, Entitlement/Grandiosity, Insufficient Self-Control/Self-Discipline, and Approval Seeking/Recognition Seeking. For the PPTS-R scale, positive correlations were found for thirteen of the eighteen schemas. The strongest correlations across questionnaires were found for the Entitlement/Grandiosity schema. The domain of early maladaptive schemas most strongly associated with psychopathy was Impaired Limits. The Entitlement/Grandiosity, Insufficient Self-Control/Self-Discipline, Mistrust/Abuse, and Emotional Deprivation schemas are all associated with psychopathic personality traits. The strongest correlations are in the Entitlement/Grandiosity schema. The domain of early maladaptive schemas most strongly associated with psychopathy is the Impaired Limits domain.

From cognitive maps to spatial schemas.

A schema refers to a structured body of prior knowledge that captures common patterns across related experiences. Schemas have been studied separately in the realms of episodic memory and spatial navigation across different species and have been grounded in theories of memory consolidation, but there has been little attempt to integrate our understanding across domains, particularly in humans. We propose that experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas (for example, the expected layout of modern cities) that share properties with but are distinct from cognitive maps (for example, the memory of a modern city) and event schemas (such as expected events in a modern city) at both cognitive and neural levels. We describe earlier theoretical frameworks and empirical findings relevant to spatial schemas, along with more targeted investigations of spatial schemas in human and non-human animals. Consideration of architecture and urban analytics, including the influence of scale and regionalization, on different properties of spatial schemas may provide a powerful approach to advance our understanding of spatial schemas.

Astrocytes in CA1 modulate schema establishment in the hippocampal-cortical neuron network

BackgroundSchema, a concept from cognitive psychology used to explain how new information is integrated with previous experience, is a framework of acquired knowledge within associative network structures as biological correlate, which allows new relevant information to be quickly assimilated by parallel cortical encoding in the hippocampus (HPC) and cortex. Previous work demonstrated that myelin generation in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays a critical role for dynamic paired association (PA) learning and consolidation, while astrocytes in ACC play a vital role in cognitive decision-making. However, circuit components and mechanism involving HPC-anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) during schema formation remain uncertain. Moreover, the correlation between HPC-ACC circuit and HPC astrocytic activity is unclear.ResultsUtilizing a paired association (PA) behavioral paradigm, we dynamically recorded calcium signals of CA1-ACC projection neurons and ACC neurons during schema formation. Depending on the characteristics of the calcium signals, three distinct stages of schema establishment process were identified. The recruitment of CA1-ACC network was investigated in each stage under CA1 astrocytes Gi pathway chemogenetic activation. Results showed that CA1-ACC projecting neurons excitation gradually decreased along with schema development, while ACC neurons revealed an excitation peak in the middle stage. CA1 astrocytic Gi pathway activation will disrupt memory schema development by reducing CA1-ACC projection neuron recruitment in the initial stage and prevent both CA1-ACC projection neurons and ACC neuron excitation in the middle stage. CA1 astrocytes Gi markedly suppress new PA assimilation into the established memory schema.ConclusionsThese results not only reveal the dynamic feature of CA1-ACC network during schema establishment, but also suggest CA1 astrocyte contribution in different stages of schema establishment.

Comparative Analysis of Past Practices of Selected Students in a Theological College and a Non-Sectarian University to Formulate Effective Reading Comprehension Development Programs

Reading comprehension is influenced by vocabulary, inference-making, and background knowledge (Perfetti et al., 2005; Ahmed et al., 2016; Cromley et al., 2010). There are theories of comprehension (Kintsch, 1988) or reading models that qualify the underlying components of reading comprehension as a whole. Comprehension of reading strategies shows how to deal with an assignment and steps to take to comprehend and sort out what to read (Singhal, 2001). Similarly, these strategies are utilized by students to improve understanding perception and overcome comprehension failures. Skilled readers naturally use conceptual knowledge (content schemata), text-structure information (formal schemata), and learning about text-processing strategies to successfully construct meaning (Shih, 1992). The purpose of this research was to identify effective reading comprehension practices employed by tertiary education students. The study utilizes a comparative case study approach which includes the examination and blends of the similarities, contrasts, and themes evident past learning experiences of students.

Supporting Learning Mobility with Student Data Harmonisation - A European Perspective

Digitalisation promotes online education, internationalisation and student mobility. Based on the Bologna process and the European higher education area, learning mobility has been successful under Erasmus and other similar initiatives. However, a key issue for students and universities is that a significant amount of time is spent on the manual labour involved in the process of applying to degree programs overseas. It is therefore essential for higher education institutions to better exploit the potential of technology and Web 2.0 to enable a secure exchange of evidence during application for degree programs and academic courses in foreign Higher Education Institutions, as well as applying for study grants and obtaining recognition for academic and other types of studies. Harmonisation of the student data is a key initial step for enabling such exchange. In this study, an approach to a secured exchange of education evidence is instrumented under the H2020 project Digital Europe for All (DE4A). Existing semantic standards for Web 2.0 applications, core vocabularies for public service data and semantic assets from existing best practices such as W3C, ISA2 core vocabularies, and Europass data model are used to curate data models that allow the exchange of a higher education diploma, secondary education diploma and information of special needs (disability, large family), which is required by students when requesting study grants (waive of tuition fees). The semantic interoperability agreements are established cross-border through these data models called canonical evidences. The canonical evidences are tested with the national data services of three countries, Portugal, Slovenia, and Spain. The final data models are implemented in XML Schema format that could be used by any educational organisation intending to use trusted public service databases within Europe to automatically retrieve information on students’ degrees. The validity of the canonical evidences is tested on two pilot occasions within the DE4A project. The outcome of this study summarises the procedural requirements for evidences when applying for a higher degree program and seeking grants. Furthermore, it resulted in verified canonical evidence data models that fulfil the procedural requirements for applying for studying abroad.

The Infodemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a surge in misinformation. Children may be especially sensitive to misinformation due to their developing multi-representational abilities, memory abilities, and formation of schemas. However, education can play a protective role by equipping children with the abilities and skills needed to combat the current infodemic.

Psychological Consequences of Experiencing Violence in Childhood-The Role of Dissociation in the Formation of Early Maladaptive Schemas.

Childhood experiences of violence can lead to severe psychological consequences. One of them is an increased risk of abnormal personality development. It can manifest as rigid negativistic beliefs about the self, others, and the surrounding world, which some specialists term early maladaptive schemas. The conducted study aims to provide a possible explanation of the role dissociation plays in the process of forming early maladaptive schemas. The study was conducted on 342 adult women whose biographies contained one or more episodes of potentially traumatic experiences of violence in childhood. Three questionnaires were used: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, Dissociative Experiences Scale, Young Schema Questionnaire. The results show that experiences of violence are linked with dissociative disorders and the intensity of early maladaptive schemas. Mediation analysis confirmed that the relationship between experiencing violence and early maladaptive schemas is exacerbated by the presence of dissociative symptoms resulting from the violence experienced. The mediation analysis results suggest that if an experience of violence is followed by the emergence of dissociative symptoms, its impact on personality is more severe. This confirms earlier notions regarding the role that dissociative symptoms play in personality changes stemming from traumatic events.

Cognitive-based methods to facilitate learning of software applications via E-learning systems

E-learning systems, which are used for teaching complex software, can facilitate learning if they provide an appropriate teaching approach that decreases learners’ cognitive load in addition to providing practical knowledge. We believe there is lack of cognitively guided educational recommendations on how to effectively and efficiently design such learning platforms. We thus provide an integrative review paper that overviews relevant literature to cognitive load theory to provide practical solutions and an empirically validated framework to decrease learners’ cognitive load and improve the learning of complex software through E-learning systems. The solutions (which contain practical examples) are proposed based on different concepts of cognitive load theory including using analogies, worked examples and infographics to facilitate schema acquisition; keeping learners’ concentration on the target tools by preventing split-attention and redundancy effects and applying the training wheel method; using interactive videos based on embodied cognition theory and finally considering the modality and transient information effects in designing E-learning systems. These solutions are related to adapting the learning platform to human cognitive structures and can lead to increased learning performance by preventing working memory from being overwhelmed, thus facilitating the formation of schemas and resulting in more efficient and reliable learning with less effort.