Scavenging Animals Research Articles

Sampling of red grouse carcasses in Britain indicates no progress during an intended five-year voluntary transition from lead to non-lead shotgun ammunition

The 2024/2025 shooting season for red grouse Lagopus scotica in Britain was the last during a five-year voluntary transition period proposed by shooting and rural organisations in 2020, during which it was suggested that shooters of all live quarry switch from the use of lead to non-lead shotgun ammunition. We purchased carcasses of red grouse and dissected them to recover shotgun pellets for chemical analysis. All of the 78 carcasses from which shot were recovered contained lead shotgun pellets. One carcass had both lead and bismuth pellets. Samples of grouse meat had, on average, concentrations of lead that were substantially higher than is permitted in meat from farmed animals and poultry, even though shotgun pellets were removed from the meat before analysis. Lead levels were similar to those from grouse sampled five and 12 years before the beginning of the transition. X-rays of 12 carcasses revealed small (mostly 0.2 – 0.5 mm diameter) fragments in most of them, in addition to whole shot. Lead concentration in the meat was strongly correlated with the number of these fragments, which are too small to be detected and potentially rejected by scavenging animals and predators. We conclude that most of the lead found in meat from red grouse carcasses results from fragmentation of shotgun pellets impacting the birds’ bodies. The intended voluntary five-year transition has been unsuccessful in relation to red grouse.

Wave of mutilation: Scavenging hermit crabs use social information to locate carcasses

AbstractCarcasses are patchily distributed and often short‐lived resources, placing scavenging animals under pressure to locate them before they rot or are depleted by competitors. Scavengers may search for carcasses directly, or indirectly, using social information. Aggregations of feeding animals and their conspicuous competitive behaviour may be more readily detectable to searching scavengers than the carcass itself. Moreover, the actions of attendant scavengers upon the carcass, breaking it apart and releasing odour or chemical cues, may further enhance its detectability to others foraging nearby. Here we test this idea. In the first of two experiments performed in the field, we found that hermit crabs (Pagurus bernhardus) were attracted to shelled mussels (Mytilus edulis) that other hermit crabs were already feeding on. They showed no strong tendency to approach aggregations of conspecifics in the absence of food, nor conspecifics that were confined close to mussels but prevented from feeding on them. We speculated that through breaking up the carcass, the feeding hermit crabs released chemical cues and drifting particles of mussel tissue that further attracted other hermit crabs. We tested this in a second experiment, finding that finely chopped mussels attracted significantly more hermit crabs than did intact mussels. We suggest that scavenger feeding action upon carcasses makes these more detectable to others by releasing odour and particle plumes, a form of inadvertently produced social information.

‘And You Shall Know That I am the Lord’: The Wanderer and the Book of Ezekiel

AbstractThe ruined-city motif in the Old English poem The Wanderer (lines 73–87) has long been read as a reflex of traditional Germanic diction, and as a symbol of material transience. In line with more recent biblical readings of the poem, this paper identifies a number of analogues and possible sources for both the excidio urbis image and other images of transience, in the biblical Book of Ezekiel. Among these correspondences between The Wanderer and the prophetic biblical narrative are references to scavenging animals, traditionally read as Germanic ‘beasts of battle’ when encountered in the Old English elegies. Reading this passage alongside Gregory the Great’s Homilies on Ezekiel further illuminates how the poem’s structure and changing use of tense corresponds with contemporary thought on the revelatory processes of prophecy. It is here proposed that the Old English poet has chosen to use images and devices which resonate with both biblical and traditional vernacular poetic diction.

EVALUATION OF THE EFFECT OF HYDRATED LIME ON THE SCAVENGING OF FERAL SWINE (SUS SCROFA) CARCASSES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGING CARCASS-BASED TRANSMISSION OF AFRICAN SWINE FEVER VIRUS.

African swine fever (ASF) is a devastating hemorrhagic disease marked by extensive morbidity and mortality in infected swine. The recent global movement of African swine fever virus (ASFV) in domestic and wild swine (Sus scrofa) populations has initiated preparedness and response planning activities within many ASF-free countries. Within the US, feral swine are of utmost concern because they are susceptible to infection, are wide-spread, and are known to interact with domestic swine populations. African swine fever virus is particularly hardy and can remain viable in contaminated carcasses for weeks to months; therefore, carcass-based transmission plays an important role in the epidemiology of ASF. Proper disposal of ASF-infected carcasses has been demonstrated to be paramount to curbing an ASF outbreak in wild boar in Europe; preparedness efforts in the US anticipate carcass management being an essential component of control if an introduction were to occur. Due to environmental conditions, geographic features, or limited personnel, immediately removing every carcass from the landscape may not be viable. Hydrated lime converts to calcium carbonate, forming a sterile crust that may be used to minimize pathogen amplification. Any disturbance by scavenging animals to the sterile crust would nullify the effect of the hydrated lime; therefore, this pilot project aimed to evaluate the behavior of scavenging animals relative to hydrated lime-covered feral swine carcasses on the landscape. At two of the three study sites, hydrated lime-treated carcasses were scavenged less frequently compared to the control carcasses. Additionally, the median time to scavenging was 1 d and 6 d for control versus hydrated lime-treated carcasses, respectively. While results of this study are preliminary, hydrated lime may be used to deter carcass disruption via scavenging in the event that the carcass cannot be immediately removed from the landscape.

The role of inputs of marine wrack and carrion in sandy-beach ecosystems: a global review.

Sandy beaches are iconic interfaces that functionally link the ocean with the land via the flow of organic matter from the sea. These cross-ecosystem fluxes often comprise uprooted seagrass and dislodged macroalgae that can form substantial accumulations of detritus, termed 'wrack', on sandy beaches. In addition, the tissue of the carcasses of marine animals that regularly wash up on beaches form a rich food source ('carrion') for a diversity of scavenging animals. Here, we provide a global review of how wrack and carrion provide spatial subsidies that shape the structure and functioning of sandy-beach ecosystems (sandy beaches and adjacent surf zones), which typically have little in situ primary production. We also examine the spatial scaling of the influence of these processes across the broader land- and seascape, and identify key gaps in our knowledge to guide future research directions and priorities. Large quantities of detrital kelp and seagrass can flow into sandy-beach ecosystems, where microbial decomposers and animals process it. The rates of wrack supply and its retention are influenced by the oceanographic processes that transport it, the geomorphology and landscape context of the recipient beaches, and the condition, life history and morphological characteristics of the macrophyte taxa that are the ultimate source of wrack. When retained in beach ecosystems, wrack often creates hotspots of microbial metabolism, secondary productivity, biodiversity, and nutrient remineralization. Nutrients are produced during wrack breakdown, and these can return to coastal waters in surface flows (swash) and aquifers discharging into the subtidal surf. Beach-cast kelp often plays a key trophic role, being an abundant and preferred food source for mobile, semi-aquatic invertebrates that channel imported algal matter to predatory invertebrates, fish, and birds. The role of beach-cast marine carrion is likely to be underestimated, as it can be consumed rapidly by highly mobile scavengers (e.g. foxes, coyotes, raptors, vultures). These consumers become important vectors in transferring marine productivity inland, thereby linking marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Whilst deposits of organic matter on sandy-beach ecosystems underpin a range of ecosystem functions and services, they can be at variance with aesthetic perceptions resulting in widespread activities, such as 'beach cleaning and grooming'. This practice diminishes the energetic base of food webs, intertidal fauna, and biodiversity. Global declines in seagrass beds and kelp forests (linked to global warming) are predicted to cause substantial reductions in the amounts of marine organic matter reaching many beach ecosystems, likely causing flow-on effects for food webs and biodiversity. Similarly, future sea-level rise and increased storm frequency are likely to alter profoundly the physical attributes of beaches, which in turn can change the rates at which beaches retain and process the influxes of wrack and animal carcasses. Conservation of the multi-faceted ecosystem services that sandy beaches provide will increasingly need to encompass a greater societal appreciation and the safeguarding of ecological functions reliant on beach-cast organic matter on innumerable ocean shores worldwide.

A Qualitative Study of Antibiotic Use Practices in Intensive Small-Scale Farming in Urban and Peri-Urban Blantyre, Malawi: Implications for Antimicrobial Resistance.

The routine use of antimicrobials in meat production has been identified as a driver of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in both animals and humans. Significant knowledge gaps exist on antibiotic use practices in farming, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. This paper sought to generate in-depth understanding of household antibiotic use practices in food animals in urban- and peri-urban Blantyre. We used a qualitative research methodology focusing on households that kept scavenging animals and those engaged in small-scale intensive farming of food animals. Methods used were: medicine-use surveys with 130 conducted with a range of households; in-depth interviews (32) with a range of participants including farmers, community based veterinary health workers and veterinary shop workers; and stakeholder interviews (17) with policy makers, regulators, and academics. Six months of ethnographic fieldwork was also undertaken, with households engaged in farming, veterinary officers and veterinary stores. Our findings suggest antibiotic use in animals was more common in households that used small-scale intensive farming techniques, but rare in households that did not. For farmers engaged in small-scale intensive farming, antibiotics were often considered vital to remain solvent in a precarious economic and social environment, with limited access to veterinary services. A complex regulatory framework governed the import, prescription, and administration of antibiotics. Veterinary stores provided easy access to antibiotics, including colistin, an antibiotic on the WHO's critically important antibiotics for human health. Our work suggests that the high dependence on antibiotics for small-scale intensive farming may contribute to the growth of drug resistant infections in Malawi. The socio-economic drivers of antibiotic use mean that interventions need to take a holistic approach to address the high dependence on antibiotics. Key interventions could include improving farmers' access to affordable veterinary services, providing information about appropriate antibiotic use including withdrawal periods and feed supplementation, as well as improvements in regulation (nationally and internationally) and enforcement of current regulations. Taken together these approaches could lead to antibiotic use being optimised in feed animals.

Identifying forensically relevant urban scavengers in Johannesburg, South Africa

Unidentified human remains are frequently recovered in urban environments in South Africa, which undergo forensic (medico-legal) investigations. These remains often exhibit animal scavenging modifications and are frequently scattered by animals. This impacts the collection and forensic analysis of the remains. This study aimed to identify scavenging animals present in two urban environments in Johannesburg, South Africa, and describe their scavenging and scattering behaviours. Six pig carcasses (Sus scrofa domesticus) (30–80 kg) were placed in a veldt in Johannesburg and in an abandoned building complex. Motion-activated cameras recorded the scavenging activities. Scavenger species were identified and their behaviours, scattering pattern, and scavenging bone modifications were described. Slender mongooses (Galerella sanguinea) were the most prolific veldt scavengers. They scattered remains to a maximum distance of 10.5 m in two directions: north and southeast. These mongooses scavenged during the advanced and dry decomposition stages. Gnawing on the angle of the mandible - with multiple parallel scores on the flat surfaces and the angle margin having a stepped appearance - may be a distinguishing scavenging modification feature of the slender mongoose. Hadeda ibis (Bostrychia hagedash) were the only scavengers recorded scavenging on the intestines of a pig carcass in the abandoned building complex. They favoured colonizing insects and created multiple, large holes in the skin and removed the lips to access the insects. The described scavenging behaviours will assist in the reconstruction of postmortem events in forensic cases and the location and collection of scattered remains in Southern Africa.

Animal scavenging on pig cadavers in the Lowveld of South Africa

Scavenging animals often scatter skeletal remains of forensic interest and leave bite marks. This study aimed to identify scavenging animals in the rural Lowveld of South Africa and to describe their scattering pattern and bite marks on bone. Ten pig cadavers (Sus scrofa domesticus) (40–80 kg) were placed at the Wits Rural Facility, Limpopo, South Africa during the summer and winter seasons. Motion activated cameras recorded the scavenging. Scavenger species were identified and their behaviors, scattering pattern, and bite marks were described. Scavenging was primarily by vultures (hooded, white-backed, and lappet-faced). Marabou stork, slender and banded mongoose, genet, civet, warthog and honey badger also actively scavenged. Vultures began to scavenge the pig cadavers after 18hrs in summer and between 26 and 28 h in winter and skeletonized pig cadavers rapidly between 5 and 98 min. Skeletonization occurred more rapidly and diffusely in summer while winter cases were densely scattered. Overall the scattered remains were within an area of 157.9 m2/1705.5 ft2 with a radius of 7.09 m/23.3 ft. Vultures cleaned bones thoroughly with very minimal markings - primarily nonspecific scores. The described scattering pattern and bite marks will assist in the recovery and analysis of scavenged remains.

Gifts of an enemy: scavenging dynamics in the presence of wolves (Canis lupus)

Abstract Carrion represents an important resource for carnivores. Examining competition for carrion in a risk–reward framework allows for a better understanding of how predator guilds compete for and benefit from carrion. We used trail camera data to compare wintertime carrion use and vigilance behavior of four carnivores in Denali National Park and Preserve. We found that carrion use was dominated by wolves (Canis lupus) and wolverines (Gulo gulo), followed by red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and coyotes (Canis latrans). Wolves and wolverines were twice as likely to visit a carcass as foxes and coyotes, and their visits were longer and more numerous. Our results suggest scavenging animals reduced their risk exposure primarily by reducing their use of carrion, with some evidence of increased vigilance at busy sites. We found that carrion use and behavior at carcass sites were influenced by the mortality type of the carcass, the age of the carcass, and the long-term intensity of wolf use in the area. Our results also suggest that wolves are the “top scavenger,” and indicate that intraguild competition for carrion strongly affects which species benefit from carrion, with larger and more aggressive species dominating.

Live and Wet Markets: Food Access versus the Risk of Disease Emergence.

Emerging zoonotic diseases exert a significant burden on human health and have considerable socioeconomic impact worldwide. In Asia, live animals as well as animal products are commonly sold in informal markets. The interaction of humans, live domestic animals for sale, food products, and wild and scavenging animals, creates a risk for emerging infectious diseases. Such markets have been in the spotlight as sources of zoonotic viruses, for example, avian influenza viruses and coronaviruses, Here, we bring data together on the global impact of live and wet markets on the emergence of zoonotic diseases. We discuss how benefits can be maximized and risks minimized and conclude that current regulations should be implemented or revised, to mitigate the risk of new diseases emerging in the future.

Scavenger activity in a peri-urban agricultural setting in the Highveld of South Africa.

Scavenging animals often scatter skeletal remains of forensic interest and cause scavenging damage. This study aimed to identify scavenging animals in the peri-urban agricultural Highveld of South Africa, describe their scattering patterns, and the damage they cause to bone. Ten pig carcasses (Sus scrofa domesticus) (40-80kg) were placed at the University of Pretoria's Mierjie Le Roux Experimental Farm (Highveld) in summer and winter. Motion-activated cameras recorded the scavenging. Scavenger species were identified and their behaviors, scattering pattern, and the damage they cause to bone were described. Scavenging was primarily by black-backed jackals; however, mongooses (slender, yellow, and water mongoose), Cape porcupine, and honey badger were also active. Remains were commonly scattered in two directions by jackals. The distance of scattering was heavily influenced by fencing. The remains were scattered within a maximum radius of 73.7m. The remains were scavenged and skeletonized faster in summer. Jackals caused minimal damage to bone, isolated to superficial, nonspecific scores, furrows, and punctures. A few mongoose bone alterations were present as jagged gnaw marks on the angle of the mandible and gnawing of the vertebral spinous process. Cape porcupine bone damage included gnaw marks on the condyle of a femur and head of humerus, and destruction of the proximal and distal ends of a tibia. The described scattering pattern and bone modification patterns will assist in the recovery and analysis of scavenged remains found in peri-urban agricultural areas in South Africa.

Open garbage dumps near protected areas in Uttarakhand: an emerging threat to Asian Elephants in the Shivalik Elephant Reserve

Waste dumping sites near protected areas are a growing issue, which may affect the activities and behaviour of wildlife, more than what we notice. Here, we present two of our case studies, where Asian Elephants were found feeding at garbage dumps in Haridwar and Ramnagar forest divisions in the Shivalik Elephant Reserve in Uttarakhand State. Since garbage dumps may spread bacterial infection and induce adverse changes in the health conditions of the elephant population, we draw the attention of planners to develop a plan of action for proper disposal of the garbage through these preliminary observations, without affecting protected areas and wildlife species, including elephants. Moreover, collection of data on the presence of garbage dumps across the reserve and a study on the behavioural responses of scavenging and non-scavenging animals visiting the dumps would give us a better understanding of the level of impact of garbage dumps for disposal planning. It is to emphasize that garbage does not constitute a part of natural food for elephants. There are restrictions and guidelines in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 and Guidelines for Declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones around National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Solid Waste Management System in Pabna Municipality of Bangladesh: A Case Study

The increasing quantity of solid waste is a growing environmental problem in many developing countries like Bangladesh. Solid waste is indiscriminately dumped on roadsides, near dustbins and into open drains thus leading to serious health risk and degradation of living environment for people of most cities like Pabna. This paper presents the existing solid waste management system of Pabna municipality. Primary data were collected from householders and waste workers through questionnaires and field visits to collection and disposal sites. Secondary data were collected from respective officials of conservancy department of Pabna municipality. Waste generation rate is noteworthy in Pabna municipality. About 27,478 tons of waste was generated in the year 2018 and about 45% (12,870 tons) of waste generated was collected and disposed by the Pabna Municipality Authority. Wastes are collected by the householders or waste collection workers from house to the nearest dustbins or collection sites such as New Market, Fire Service Road, Square Godown Mor, Jel Khana Mor, Mannan Miyar Goli, Khamar Bari, etc. and then transported to the disposal site Fakirpur. The rest of wastes is remained on roadsides or dustbins and into open drains indiscriminately due to shortage of manpower and waste collection and transport vehicles. These wastes are spread by scavenging birds and animals near dustbins or collection sites thus causing public health problems and environmental pollution. The waste disposal system is an open dumping, resulting water pollution, air pollution, soil pollution, noise pollution, etc. near the disposal site.

Taphonomic bone trauma caused by Southern African scavengers.

Forensic anthropologists in Southern Africa are often confronted with post-mortem modifications of human skeletal remains caused by animal scavenging. This is troublesome as the post-mortem pseudo-trauma could be misinterpreted. This study aimed to describe the skeletal trauma caused by Southern African scavengers which are of forensic interest. The scavenging animals selected for this study included wild dog, spotted hyena, lion, leopard, black-backed jackal, caracal, and porcupine housed at the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa. Sparsely fleshed and articulated bovine front and hind limbs as well as ribs were placed in each animal enclosure and collected after 2days for cleaning and analysis. Felids (lion, leopard, and caracal) gnawed away the greater trochanter of the humerus leaving deep, parallel furrows. Hyena caused massive trauma to bone with one-third of the tibia shaft surviving with jagged fracture edges. Porcupines left distinctive fan-like parallel scores and large, oval depressions with an eroded, polished appearance. Wild dogs and jackals did not leave any distinctive patterns. Light scavenging trauma is distinct from other bone taphonomy but cannot be used to determine the species. Heavy scavenging trauma patterns can be used to determine the general type of perpetrating animal; however, the exact taxa or species cannot be determined.

Not all rotten fish stink: Microbial changes in decaying carcasses increase cytotoxicity and potential risks to animal scavengers

Dead animal bodies occur naturally in ecosystems, are regularly washed up along ocean beaches, and are a key component of many coastal food webs where scavenging animals consume carcasses. Microbes that decompose carcasses can, however, produce toxic chemicals during putrefaction. This is frequently assumed to have negative consequences for scavengers in the wild, but has been rarely quantified. In this study, we measured how changes in the microbial assemblages of decaying fish affect the toxicity of carcasses. We did this by allowing fish carcasses to decompose in the field for up to 31 days in the dunes of a sandy beach; an ecosystem where scavenging animals are common. Carcasses were sampled daily and the tissues tested for changes in culturable microbial communities using 100 μL samples of whole carcass homogenates on marine and sheep blood agar, and changes in cytotoxicity using Vero cell assays. Cytotoxicity peaked 11 days after deployment showing 95% rounded and detached cells. Cytotoxicity was lower in the early phases of decay as microbial communities developed and after approximately two weeks when carcasses dried. The peak in toxicity correlated with peaks in the abundance of Acinetobacter, and Vibrio and Alivibrio; microbes known to produce toxins. This trajectory of toxicity suggests an ecological model where microbes may predictably determine the palatability of carrion in food webs, making both fresh and aged carcasses the least risky proposition for scavenging animals. This ‘fresh and aged carcasses are best’ model is highly amenable to testing in the context of carrion-centred food webs in multiple systems, and it has practical applications in conservation where animal carcasses are provided to threatened, and often iconic, scavenger species.

"Though Blighted Troth Be All Bereft": Famine Memory in Finnegans Wake

"Though Blighted Troth Be All Bereft":Famine Memory in Finnegans Wake Donal Manning (bio) The perception that there was a literary "culture of silence" in the aftermath of the Great Irish Famine has been debunked by several critics.1 Nonetheless, James Joyce has been held to have ignored the catastrophe, a reticence expressed most notably by Terry Eagleton's rhetorical question: "Where is the Famine in the literature of the Revival? Where is it in Joyce?"2 Colm Tóibín's remark that "For Joyce and for many other writers, the Famine was too distant," in contrast, has received less attention.3 Recognition of Joyce's engagement with Irish history and politics, however, has been followed by an expanding body of work analyzing his treatment of the Famine, particularly in his writings up to and including Ulysses. Few studies have considered references to the disaster in Finnegans Wake. In providing a comprehensive appraisal of the appearance of the Famine in the Wake, this article demonstrates heartfelt representation of the disaster and the confrontation of its social and cultural impacts. As such, Joyce contributes to a communal memory of the Famine. Recent criticism holds that Joyce makes an invaluable contribution to Irish cultural memory. In the musings of Stephen Dedalus and Leopold Bloom on their own personal trauma and on contemporary Ireland's predicament, Oona Frawley sees Ulysses as depicting intensely both individual and collective memory.4 Len Platt, likewise, notes that cultural memory theory has "engaged the interest of Joyceans," who are familiar with his stance against convention and the "authorised version."5 [End Page 44] After a brief overview of famine memory in Joyce's earlier works, this article shows that the Famine appears insistently as a set of rich, poignant, and varied allusions in the Wake. These allusions will be seen to fall within the seven famine mnemonic clusters described by Marguérite Corporaal and colleagues: starvation, landscape, religion, landlords and tenants, nationalism, femininity, and migration.6 Borrowing inter alia from contemporary political debates and historical accounts, newspaper reports, poems, and ballads, the allusions exemplify the construction of communal memory. Further, given the blurring of characters and identities in the Wake, Joyce avoids the criticism that famine writing risks appropriating the personal trauma experienced by its victims and claiming it unfairly for later generations. In his 1907 essay "Ireland: Island of Saints and Sages," Joyce writes, "in the years in which the potato crop failed, the negligence of the English government left the flower of the people to die of hunger."7 Whether or not one agrees with him, this is a straightforward précis of a moderate nationalist appraisal of the Famine. Joyce's early fiction reinforces his engagement with the disaster. Thus, Andrew Gibson argues that the "paralysis" that pervades Dubliners reflects the sense of shock that overwhelmed Ireland during the Famine, and the torpor that followed it.8 Similarly, Gibson argues that the petty meanness displayed in the stories reflects a corresponding and related heritage of moral debility. Ulysses contains much famine imagery. Bonnie Roos notes Deasy's complacent recollections of the disaster in "Nestor" and the concentration of pertinent allusions in "Circe," including Bloom's hoarding of food and hints of cannibalism.9 Julieann Ulin shows that famine memory pervades Ulysses to a much greater extent than Joyce's earlier fiction. For example, Stephen's preoccupation with the emaciated image of his mother, with corpses, and with dogs repeatedly hints at images of the "walking dead" and of corpses eaten by scavenging animals. Bloom muses on similar themes in "Hades," and in "Cyclops" the Citizen excoriates the British government's management of the disaster.10 Ulin notes the [End Page 45] many references to hunger in "Lestrygonians," including Bloom's observation, "Hungry man is an angry man."11 Roos argues that Joyce's depiction of the Famine in Ulysses exemplifies an important step in Ireland's coming to terms with the catastrophe: "The danger is not only that without confronting the Famine, the Irish cannot learn to escape their bondage, but also that if unlearned, the Irish … may be condemned to repeating their Famine history."12 It will become clear that Joyce develops...

The postmortem exposure interval of an Iron Age human bone assemblage from Alken Enge, Denmark

Periods of exposure of corpses are a well-known phenomenon associated with battlefields and other conflict-related contexts involving numerous individuals. The identification and characterisation of these periods of exposure are often central to the interpretation of the sites. As such, damage to the bones may be a valuable source of information in this respect.The focus of this study is on estimating the exposure sequence of an Iron Age assemblage of 2335 human bones recovered from Alken Enge, Denmark, by examining the damage patterns caused by scavenging animals. The prehistoric deposition of these bones in the lake, in an anaerobic, non-corroding environment, has resulted in their preservation to an exceptional degree, allowing detailed taphonomic studies of the postmortem exposure interval prior to deposition. The anthropological analyses are supported by histological analysis of bone micromorphology.Patterns of animal damage on the Alken Enge bones are consistent with gnawing on proximal and distal ends of long bones and fresh breaks caused by large scavenging animals such as wolves and domestic dogs. The lack of rodent gnawing, fractures in dry and weathered bones and the absence of evidence for bacterial attack, together with the presence of framboidal pyrite, suggest that the bones were subjected to limited subaerial exposure, dismembered and partly defleshed before being deposited in the lake in prehistory.

Methicillin Resistant <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em> (MRSA) and Methicillin Resistant Coagulase Negative <em>Staphylococci</em> (MRCoNS) Isolated from Fish and Fish Handlers in Maiduguri, Nigeria

Methicillin-Resistant <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em> (MRSA) and Methicillin-Resistant Coagulase Negative <em>Staphylococci</em> (MRCoNS) are of increasing importance to animal and public health where it has been isolated in food production line. The presence of <em>Staphylococci</em> on fish is an indication of contamination or disease in fish. This study was conducted to isolate and phenotypically characterize MRSA and MRCoNS from fresh fish, fish handlers, utensils used for fish processing and the scavenging animals within two major markets supplying fresh fish in Maiduguri, Nigeria. A total isolation rate of 121 (21.1%), 38 (6.6%) and 39 (6.8%) were detected as <em>S. aureus</em>, MRSA and MRCoNS, respectively. MRSA was isolated from fresh fish (2.6%), fish handlers (15%), utensils (4.5%) and scavenging animals (15.9%). MRCoNS was isolated from fresh fish 9 (3.4%), fish handlers 8 (13.3%), utensils 9 (5.8%) and scavenging animals 13 (13.8%). MRSA isolates showed resistance to cefoxitin (100%), gentamicin (89.5%), ciprofloxacin (94.7%), oxacillin (76.3%) and tetracycline (68.4%). Similarly, MRCoNS isolates were resistant to cefoxitin (100%), oxacillin (79.4%), cephazolin (66.6%) and tetracycline (64.1%). MRSA and MRCoNS were detected in most parts of fresh fish and the marketing environments supplying fish to consumers in Maiduguri. Further studies are needed to elucidate transmission routes of MRSA in relation to fresh fish and to provide tools for preventing the spread of MRSA.

Nassariid whelks hitch-hiking on Cancer pagurus: phoresis, commensalism or fouling?

The behavioural responses of scavenging animals to mackerel (Scomber scombrus) baits were studied by short-term video photography in shallow water (16–18 m depth) at Lough Hyne, Ireland. Earliest arrivals (after seconds/minutes) at baits were small fish or swimming crabs (Liocarcinus depurator), followed by crawling portunid crabs. After tens of minutes, juvenile whelks 2–4 mm shell length (Nassarius reticulatusand/orNassarius incrassatus) sometimes arrived to feed. They moved at a mean speed of 1.24 (SD 0.392) mm s−1. After tens of minutes or hours, single large scavengers arrived, consuming most of the bait; the most common of these wereCancer pagurusthat fed in a wasteful fashion, generating large quantities of mackerel scraps.Cancer pagurusmoved into view at a mean speed of 48.7 (SD 16.9) mm s−1(39 times the whelk speed). A single individual ofC. pagurus(197 mm carapace width) arrived at a bait carrying 24 juvenile whelks on the dorsal surface of its carapace. No whelks were present on walking legs or chelipeds. The crab fed for 6.8 min and 3 whelks fell off before it departed. The nature of this crab/whelk association is discussed; on balance it appears that it is a previously unreported example of phoresy/phoresis. No whelks were observed being carried by other edible crabs or upon large numbers of scavenging portunid crabs.

Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment

Lead is one of the most studied toxicants, and overwhelming scientific evidence demonstrates that lead is toxic to several physiological systems in vertebrates, including the nervous, renal, cardiovascular, reproductive, immune, and hematologic systems (Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment—A Consensus Statement of Scientists 2013). Furthermore, there is no level of lead exposure in children known to be without adverse effects [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 2012a, 2012b]. In light of this evidence, there is an urgent need to end a major source of lead for animals and humans: spent lead bullets and shotgun pellets. Notably, production of lead-based ammunition in the United States accounted for > 69,000 metric tons consumed in 2012; this is second only to the amount of lead used to manufacture storage batteries (U.S. Geological Survey 2013). However, there are few regulations regarding the release of lead into the environment through discharge of lead-based ammunition. For other major categories of lead consumption, such as lead batteries and sheet lead/lead pipes, environmental discharge and disposal are regulated. Therefore, lead-based ammunition is likely the greatest largely unregulated source of lead that is knowingly discharged into the environment in the United States. In contrast, the release or distribution of other major sources of environmental lead contamination (e.g., leaded gasoline, lead-based paint, lead solder) have been substantially regulated and reduced since the mid-1970s (Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment—A Consensus Statement of Scientists 2013). There is a national discussion—polarized at times—of the health risks posed to humans and wildlife from the discharge of lead-based ammunition. To inform this discussion, a group of 30 nationally and internationally recognized scientists with expertise regarding lead and environmental health recently collaborated to create an evidence-based consensus statement (Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment—A Consensus Statement of Scientists 2013) supporting the reduction and eventual elimination of lead released to the environment through the discharge of lead-based ammunition. The discharge of lead bullets and shotgun pellets into the environment poses significant health risks to humans and wildlife. The best available scientific evidence demonstrates that the discharge of lead-based ammunition substantially increases environmental lead levels, especially in areas with higher shooting activity (U.S. Environmetal Protection Agency 2012) and that the discharge of lead-based ammunition poses risks of elevated lead exposure to gun users (National Research Council 2012). When lead-containing bullets are used to shoot wildlife, they can fragment into hundreds of small pieces, many of which are small enough to be easily ingested by scavenging animals or to be retained in meat prepared for human consumption (Hunt et al. 2009; Knott et al. 2010; Pauli and Burkirk 2007). Consequently, lead-based ammunition may be a significant source of lead exposure in humans that regularly ingest wild game (Hanning et al. 2003; Johansen et al. 2006; Levesque et al. 2003; Tsuji et al. 2008). In addition, lead pellets and fragments have been reported in gastrointestinal tracts of hunters who consume meat from animals shot with lead-based ammunition (Carey 1977; Reddy 1985). The use of lead pellets in shotgun shells for hunting waterfowl posed a serious threat to wetland birds, and secondarily to bald eagles, in the United States, leading to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s 1991 nationwide regulations requiring use of nontoxic shotgun pellets for hunting waterfowl (Anderson 1992). However, lead poisoning from ingestion of spent lead-based ammunition fragments continues to pose a particularly serious health threat for scavenging species. These lead-containing fragments remain the principal source of lead exposure to endangered California condors and continue to prevent the successful recovery of these birds in the wild (Church et al. 2006; Finkelstein et al. 2012; Green et al. 2008; Parish et al. 2009; Rideout et al. 2012; Woods et al. 2007). Other wildlife species, such as golden eagles, bald eagles, ravens, turkey vultures, and pumas, are also exposed to the fragments of spent lead ammunition (Burco et al. 2012; Clark and Scheuhammer 2003; Craighead and Bedrosian 2008; Cruz-Martinez et al. 2012; Fisher et al. 2006; Kelly and Johnson 2011; Stauber et al. 2010; Wayland and Bollinger 1999). No rational deliberation about the use of lead-based ammunition can ignore the overwhelming evidence for the toxic effects of lead, or that the discharge of lead bullets and shot into the environment poses significant risks of lead exposure to humans and wildlife. Given the availability of non-lead ammunition for shooting and hunting (Thomas 2013), the use of lead-based ammunition that introduces lead into the environment can be reduced and eventually eliminated. This seems to be a reasonable and equitable action to protect the health of humans and wildlife.