Scapa Flow Research Articles

Who owns the sand? The Ayre of Cara, Orkney Islands, Scotland

The construction of Churchill Barrier No. 4 in 1943, a causeway in the Orkney Islands of Scotland, has led to the accretion of a substantial beach‐dune system, the so‐called ‘Ayre of Cara’. As a result of the blocking of tidal flows through Water Sound into Scapa Flow, the deposits have accumulated at an average rate of 7.7 × 103 m3 a−1, which is manifest at the land surface as an average lateral advance rate of 1–6 m a−1. The Ayre of Cara is the only accreting dune system in the Orkney Islands and the rate of lateral growth of the beach is one of the fastest in Britain. Since the causeway, one of four built in World War II to defend the British naval fleet, was not intended to ‘claim’ land, the fundamental question raised is who owns the sand that has accumulated? This question is especially pertinent given that the materials deposited have, at one part of the site, been extracted for commercial gain under license granted by the local authority. A series of theoretical ownership scenarios, which pertain to British legal systems, demonstrate that the situation is complex and that a definitive answer is not yet possible as there has not been a case from this specific site brought before a court, or even from a similar site. However, were property disputes to arise in comparable situations in the future, this paper details for the first time the potential level of confusion and complexity that is likely to arise. The findings of this work also have similar relevance for similar situations in other legal systems in the world.

Buchan the Orientalist: Greenmantle and Western Views of the East

Buchan the Orientalist:Greenmantle and Western Views of the East Ahmed Al-Rawi Introduction Many critical works were written in the last few decades tackling John Buchan's treatment of Africa, Africans, and his colonial attitudes. As part of the author's experience as secretary to the high commissioner for South Africa, Lord Milner, between 1901 and 1903, Buchan was acquainted with the African customs which did not only add to his experience as a writer but also made him a 'fanatical imperialist'.1 However, few critics pointed out the continuation of his imperialist conviction of the East that was mostly represented in Greenmantle (1916). Buchan changed his focus of attention during the First World War when he worked for the British Intelligence. During that period, he retained the dream of the ever expanding British Empire but shifted his idea toward Islam and the decaying Ottoman Empire so as to address wider problems that destabilized the status quo like the rise of radical Islamic movements. This paper argues that Buchan's Greenmantle falls into Edward Said's hypothesis of Orientalism since it expresses elitist ideas about the East and Muslims; also, the study investigates Buchan's historical background of Greenmantle in order to understand his overwhelming preoccupation with propaganda, his use of contemporary political events, and the influence of the Dutch orientalist, C. Snouck Hurgronje (1857-1936), on his view of Islamic movements. Buchan's novels are, in fact, twofold: they are used as tools to influence the beliefs of a whole generation, and they echo the prevalent cultural and political views of Britain at that time. Buchan's Greenmantle Since the 'historical context' of Greenmantle is 'vividly portrayed,'2 the novel is analyzed as a historical document relative to the events that occurred before and during the First World War. Indeed, the historical details in the novel are consciously used to propagate positive ideas of the British Empire and present negative stereotypes of the German and Turkish powers. James Buchan, the writer's grandson, said that his grandfather started working on Greenmantle in France 'after the battle of Loos in October 1915'. He resumed writing it 'between trips to view the fleet at Scapa Flow with Russian parliamentary delegates in February 1916, and came back to France in March and June'.3 In June 1916, Buchan officially joined the intelligence staff at the Foreign Office and in July the novel first appeared in Land and Water, a magazine installment, and was then published in a book in November of the same year.4 As a member of the British Intelligence Corps stationed in France, he greatly depended on the news he heard from colleagues who were in the East besides the information he gathered by researching for the Nelson History of the War project that started on February 1915. In his Greenmantle's 'Preface', Buchan mentioned that the events taking place were not far from happening: Let no man or woman call its events improbable. The war has driven that word from our vocabulary, and melodrama has become the prosiest realism. Things unimagined before happen daily to our friends by sea and land. The one chance in a thousand is habitually taken, and as often as not succeeds. (vi) The writer admitted that the incidents narrated in the novel were actually happening in real life or at least not far from happening. In addition to the historical details, many characters in the novel were taken from real persons like Major Richard Hannay, Sandy Arbuthnot, and Enver Bey. Richard Hannay, a character first introduced in The Thirty-Nine Steps, was presented as a man whose 'father had brought…[him] out from Scotland at the age of six'.5 Hannay represented the Scottish officer, Edmund Ironside (1880–1959), whom Buchan met in France. Ironside actually 'protected British interests from German spies in the months preceding the outbreak of the war',6 but he used to believe in the Darwinian classification of human races that suggested the superiority of the British, for 'he professed special dislike of the Irish, Jews, Latins, and "lesser races", that is, most of mankind'.7 Being a Scottish chauvinist, Buchan was influenced by Ironside especially by his...

George Alexander Cockburn Esson

After house surgeon jobs at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary and an assistantship in the pathology department, George Alexander Cockburn Esson joined the army and served in 1939 in Orkney, where he...

Arthur Thomas Marshall and Mary Louise Marshall (née Neville)

Educated in Wolverhampton, Arthur Marshall narrowly avoided joining the Kenyan police force by winning the Frank Fletcher scholarship to Birmingham Medical School, worth £100 a year for five years. After...

Erich Raeder: Admiral of the Third Reich (review)

Reviewed by: Erich Raeder: Admiral of the Third Reich Eric C. Rust Erich Raeder: Admiral of the Third Reich. By Keith W. Bird. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2006. ISBN 1-55750-047-9. Photographs. Notes. Note on bibliography and sources. Index. Pp. xxvi, 282. $34.95. Keith Bird, currently Chancellor of Kentucky's Community and Technical College System, enjoys a richly earned reputation as an expert not only on the Reichsmarine and its officer corps, but on the historiography of all German navies in modern times. If he now offers the first professional biography of Erich Raeder since the Grand Admiral's own memoirs and subsequent death almost fifty years ago, one can rest assured the subject is in most competent hands. [End Page 254] Given the attention other German naval leaders such as Tirpitz or Dönitz have attracted, one must be grateful to Professor Bird for bringing back into the picture the old-school navalist without whose leadership the build-up of Germany's naval forces in the inter-war period and their performance between 1939 and 1945 would have been unthinkable or at least very different. Despite his considerable influence, Raeder lacked the grand appeal of his role model Tirpitz, nor did he ever rival the charismatic flair of his successor Dönitz. Moreover, he suffered from remarkable personal limitations, coming across as "aloof, uncomfortable in professional relationships, religious, authoritarian, puritanical, intolerant of individual initiative . . . , and extremely sensitive to criticism" (p. xxvi). Even as experienced a researcher as Bird can only offer a biography of the public figure Raeder, concentrating on his formative years in the Imperial Navy and his tenure as Commander-in-Chief of the Reichsmarine and Kriegsmarine between 1928 and 1943, leaving readers to speculate vaguely on the Grand Admiral's private life, even on his years in Spandau, as a dimension and experience probably forever beyond the historian's grasp. Raeder saw his mission in rebuilding Germany's fleet, infrastructure, and personnel morale after the traumata of Versailles and Scapa Flow in the form of creating a balanced, flexible force capable of projecting sea power beyond the confines of the Baltic and North Seas in consonance with the expanding aspirations of the later Weimar governments and Hitler's much bolder ambitions after 1933. The predictable yet irresolvable tension between the Third Reich's global dreams and what was realistically feasible to achieve with its meager naval forces turned Raeder and so many others into tragic figures whose genuine loyalty to the state, to Germany, and to their profession was easily manipulated by the brown regime for its sinister designs. Bird demonstrates that Raeder's political accommodation was ultimately akin to a sell-out, that the carefully nourished myth of his service's ideological neutrality grew ever more transparent as the war grew old, and that his cherished concept of a "mixed" or "integrated" fleet consisting of both capital ships and commerce raiders, especially U-boats, created nothing but slaughter on the high seas without gaining for Germany a decisive or even temporary strategic advantage. Even Raeder's largely successful effort to keep the German Navy morally decent in the conduct of its operations must strike observers as scant and perhaps irrelevant compensation for an overall failed mission. Bird's book is an important corrective to the largely self-spun legend of professional brilliance and political abstinence long associated with Hitler's "other" Grand Admiral. Well researched, critical, as well as engagingly organized and presented, it deserves and should find a wide readership. Eric C. Rust Baylor University Waco, Texas Copyright © 2007 Society for Military History

Postcards from Scapa Flow: Developing a Conservation Strategy for Material Recovered from SMS Karlsruhe

Blocks of postcards were recovered from the sea bed at Scapa Flow, from the wreck of a World War I cruiser. There were at least three different images represented: most were of a warship, others of a more sentimental nature. All of the postcards were unused; they were in very poor condition, being extremely soft, badly stained with metal corrosion and sulphides. The treatment of paper items recovered from the RMS Titanic is discussed, and a treatment strategy for the Scapa Flow assemblage is outlined. The condition of the cards is discussed, along with conservation treatment trials, conservation treatments and anticipated long-term problems.

Observations of Alexandrium tamarense (Dinophyceae) vegetative cells and oceanographic parameters in Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands, Scotland

The toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense was studied along with surrounding oceanographic parameters from May 1998 to May 1999 in Scapa Flow, Orkney. Nutrient concentrations were higher in winter and showed a phase of depletion in late spring and summer. Dinoflagellates tended to be abundant in late spring and summer. Alexandrium tamarense was detected in the water column almost year round, with the exception of the winter months (September to December). The growth of the A. tamarense population in Scapa Flow was not reflected in a monospecific bloom but rather in moderate to small biomass levels and always in co-occurrence with other species of diatoms and dinoflagellates. The highest concentration recorded was 1600 cells l−1 but concentrations of 200–400 cells l−1 were more typical. The oceanographic parameters indicate that the occurrences of vegetative cells of A. tamarense seem to be explained in part by instability of the water column, low temperature and low nutrient concentrations.

Optimising the container transhipment hub location in northern Europe

This paper applies a specific research methodology designed to evaluate and compare competing seaport locations within a given region as the optimal site for international container transhipment activity. The main focus is on container transhipment hub locations in northern Europe. Transhipment is the fastest growing segment of the containerport market, resulting in significant scope to develop new transhipment terminal capacity to cater for future expected traffic flows. Transport distances and associated shipping costs are calculated for existing hub locations and these are then compared with a new proposed transhipment location in the region, in this instance the vast natural deep-water harbour at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands. Findings from the research demonstrate that current container hub ports are not necessarily optimal (for serving transhipment markets), and that alternative port sites such as Scapa Flow could provide a superior and more competitive location from which to support the fast expanding transhipment markets of northern Europe.

Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Scapa Flow, Orkney, Scotland

To determine the composition, abundance and horizontal distribution of resting cysts in modern coastal sediments from Scapa Flow, Orkney, Scotland, sediment samples were collected from 12 stations. Twenty-six dinoflagellate cyst types representing eight motile-defined genera and one cyst-defined genus were observed. Four species or species groups dominated the assemblage for the Flow as a whole, Scrippsiella trochoidea, unidentified round brown cysts, Polykrikos schwartzii and Alexandrium tamarense. Total cyst abundance ranged from 37–1524 cysts ml−1 wet sediment. The majority of cysts occurred in the central area of the Flow, where higher densities were observed. Of particular importance is the distribution and abundance of cysts of A. tamarense. Since 1991 there have been annual toxic episodes of paralytic shellfish poisoning, caused by the vegetative stage of A. tamarense, in Scapa Flow, leading to widespread bans on all shellfish activities for months at a time. Cysts of A. tamarense were widely distributed within the Flow and ranged from 0–212 cysts ml−1 wet sediment. The overall widespread distribution and higher abundances of cysts of A. tamarense in the central areas of the Flow indicate potential seedbeds for initiation of future vegetative growth and subsequent outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning.

From Annapolis to Scapa Flow: The Autobiography of Edward L. Beach, Sr. (review)

From Annapolis to Scapa Flow: The Autobiography of Edward L. Beach, Sr. (review)

Practical Considerations in the Recovery of Oil from Sunken and Abandoned Vessels

ABSTRACT The world has a legacy from its maritime history; sunken vessels from wars, casualties from accidents and storms and abandoned vessels from former marine operations. All have the potential to be environmental “time bombs” if left to their own devices. In recent years there have been a number of operations to investigate and potentially salvage these wrecks, some of which are in increasingly poor condition and beginning to show signs of structural failure. Operations such as the Blucher in Norway, Royal Oak in Scapa Flow, UK, and the Erika in the Bay of Biscay have all presented technological and environmental challenges to salvors. This paper will investigate one such operation that has presented a unique set of challenges, namely the recovery of the fuel oil from a collection of whale catchers abandoned in Grytviken harbour in the South Atlantic. The extreme remoteness of the location has meant that the operation can only be carried out after a number of detailed surveys. The logistics issues of transporting the personnel and the equipment to the island were a major consideration in the planning of the operation. All potential scenarios had to be considered in advance and contingencies put in place since additional or replacement equipment would not be readily available either at a nearby location or within a reasonable timescale. The issues of safety of personnel, access to the vessels and the handling of equipment on to the vessels all had to be addressed. The removal of the oil, its subsequent temporary storage and its ultimate disposal will all be covered in the paper. The whole operation is set against the backdrop of one of the worlds’ wilderness areas which is in the process of being rejuvenated after the ravages of both natural events and manmade activities.

Book Review: Scapa: Britain's Famous Wartime Naval Base, The Grand Scuttle: The Sinking of the German Fleet at Scapa Flow in 1919

Book Review: Scapa: Britain's Famous Wartime Naval Base, The Grand Scuttle: The Sinking of the German Fleet at Scapa Flow in 1919

Scapa Flow and the protection and management of Scotland's historic military shipwrecks

IntroductionIn the past Britain has been a global naval, mercantile and industrial power and, as an island which has benefited from successive waves of settlement, its history is inextricably linked to its surrounding seas (Lavery 2001). High volumes of shipping traffic and a long history of seafaring and warfare have contributed to a density of shipwreck remains in UK territorial waters which is likely to be amongst the highest in the world.Recently warship wrecks have been given a significantly higher degree of attention in the UK and world-wide, and the recent ‘scheduling’ of the German High Seas Fleet wrecks under the terms of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 2979 (AMAA 1979) has led to new challenges in heritage management. At the same time as we are becoming aware of the value of these resources, the administrative, legislative, environmental and social frameworks in which they have to be managed are changing rapidly.

Diving accidents in sports divers in Orkney waters.

Scapa Flow in Orkney is one of the major world centres for wreck diving. Because of the geography of Orkney and the nature of the diving, it is possible to make relatively accurate estimates of the number of dives taking place. The denominator of dive activity allows the unusual opportunity of precise calculation of accident rates. In 1999, one in every 178 sports divers visiting Orkney was involved in a significant accident, in 2000 the figure was one in 102. Some of these accidents appear to have been predictable and could be avoided by better education and preparation of visiting divers.

Towards the integrated management of Scotland's cultural heritage: Examining historic shipwrecks as marine environmental resources

Shipwrecks are a neglected area of archaeological resource management, research and investigation. They are increasingly being considered as important marine resources despite being non-renewable. However, they are increasingly subject to impacts given the rate of global marine and coastal development. Paradoxically, this growth increases the rate of discovery of previously unknown wreck sites, exposing them to potential risk but also offering more opportunities for the implementation of appropriate management structures which are sensitive to archaeological preservation but at the same time promote awareness, access and involvement. In this paper current approaches to the management of Scotland's shipwreck heritage are examined in the context of overseas initiatives. Case-studies for further research at national (National Monuments Record of Scotland), regional (scuttled German High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow) and local (Burntisland Designated Historic Wreck Site) level are summarized, and future shipwreck heritage management strategies are discussed.

Behavioural and acoustic observations of sperm whales in Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands

Six juvenile sperm whales were observed visually and acoustically in the confined waters of Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands during March 1993. General visual behaviours observed included slow travelling, head-outs, logging and side fluking but there were no observations of tail fluking within the confines of Scapa Flow. Recordings of the whales' vocalizations through hydrophones revealed a remarkably wide repertoire including clicks, rapid clicks, gunshots, chirrups, creaks, short trumpets, pips, squeals and clangs. Selected examples of these sounds were digitized and analysed as spectrograms. Clicks, rapid clicks, gunshots and clangs all showed a characteristic impulsive broadband signature. Chirrups, short trumpets and creaks were composed of rapid sequences of broadband impulses, although creaks were invariably faint and were difficult to illustrate well. Chirrups, short trumpets and clangs showed strong spectral peaks and pips were particularly unusual sounds with impulsive narrowband signatures composed of harmonically spaced peaks. Squeals exhibited prolonged, narrowband swept frequency signatures often with slight oscillation. All types of vocalization with the exception of clangs were heard from sperm whales during pure observation, minimum disturbance encounters in the field. Two attempts were made to remove the whales from Scapa Flow, the first being an enticement operation to lure the whales to open water with the use of underwater playback of sounds of socializing female sperm whales and the second a shepherding operation to drive the whales with a flotilla of vessels. The enticement operation was unsuccessful but the shepherding operation was successful, although the whales showed considerable reluctance to navigate a narrow channel to the open sea. During the shepherding operation there was a distinct change in the nature of the whales' vocalizations, with clangs predominating over other forms.

Military Remains on and around the Coast of the United Kingdom: Statutory Mechanisms of Protection

AbstractThis article addresses the protection afforded by UK statute law to the large number of military remains found on and around the coast of the UK. It is concerned primarily, but not exclusively, with remains from World Wars I and II. These remains are varied in nature and include sunken vessels and aircraft; landing craft and amphibious vehicles; fortresses, gun emplacements and other coastal defences. They face a wide variety of threats, including looting, redevelopment, dredging and land reclamation, erosional processes, recreational activities and neglect. The article examines the protection offered to these remains by three statutes: the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973, the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 and the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. The provisions of each statute are examined in order to consider the extent of the protection they may afford. The interrelationship of the statutes is also given consideration and the rather peculiar overlapping of their provisions is discussed. The Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 is given particularly full analysis since this statute has been neglected by academic commentators in the past and yet could offer a useful protective mechanism. Although it was enacted after the Falklands conflict primarily in order to protect the sanctity of human remains, its provisions, if fully implemented, would have wide effect. The difficulty which may arise in choosing the most appropriate statutory mechanism for protection of particular remains is illustrated by an interesting case study relating to the German vessels scuttled by their crews in Scapa Flow at the end of World War II. Finally, some comments and suggestions are made concerning the current division of administrative responsibility for military remains in the UK which leads to an unco-ordinated approach to protection.

The History of Massage and Physiotherapy in the Royal Navy

George Frederick Coker from Bermondsey joined the Royal Navy on August 11,1899, as a probationary sick berth apprentice, later qualifying as a masseur on July 1, 1906. Where he trained and qualified is at present unknown but he joined the Royal Yacht Victoria and Albert in June 1911 until August 1914, rejoining again in June 1919 until August 1924. He was a member of the Royal Naval Brigade which left Scapa Flow on March 20,1916, landing in France on the 22nd, and proceeding to the Ypres front on the 23rd, joining the Coldstream Guards stationed there.

The impact of tributyltin from large vessels on dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus) populations around Scottish oil ports

Abstract Surveys of imposex in dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus) populations around oil terminals in Sullom Voe (Shetland) and Scapa Flow (Orkney) have confirmed that the effects of tributyltin (TBT) released from large vessels in coastal waters can be recognised. The impact of large vessels can be separated from the effects of other inputs of TBT in the areas studied. The intensity of the effects was greater in Shetland than in Orkney, reflecting the higher exposure to TBT resulting from the greater volume of traffic using the Shetland terminal, and the more restricted water exchange in that area. A large proportion of the female dogwhelks in Sullom Voe were unable to reproduce. Females in Scapa Flow were still able to reproduce, except for a small proportion close to two fish farm sites where TBT net-treatments were used prior to 1987.

Laminated microbial ecosystems on sheltered beaches in Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands

Abstract Laminated microbial sediment ecosystems which develop in the upper tidal zone of Scapa Flow beaches, Orkney Islands were investigated with respect to depth profiles of chlorophyll a , bacteriochlorophyll a , pH, redox, oxygen and the following inorganic sulfur compounds: free sulfide, FeS, polysulfides, polythionates, elemental sulfur and thiosulfate. In addition, particle size distribution and light penetration were determined at all sampling locations. Three main types of laminated sediment ecosystems were recognized, designated the ‘classical’ type (layer of cyanobacteria underlain by layer of purple sulfur bacteria), the ‘single-layer’ type (chlorophyll a containing organisms absent, purple sulfur bacteria at sediment surface), and the ‘inverted’ type (chlorophyll a containing organisms underlying purple sulfur bacteria). The dominant purple sulfur bacterium was Thiocapsa roseopersicina and Chromatium vinosum was observed less commonly. The principal cyanobacterium found in these sulfureta was Oscillatoria sp. The depth horizon at which maximum populations of purple sulfur bacteria were recorded often did not coincide with the sulfide/oxygen interface but was located closer to the sediment surface where polysulfides, polythionates, elemental sulfur and occasionally thiosulfate were present. The structure of these sulfureta is discussed in relation to the chemolithotrophic growth capacities of Thiocapsa in the presence of oxygen.