Scapa Flow Research Articles

Scapa Flow: An Important Reminder of the Dangers of Vanity and the Need for Alacrity in Naval Battles

Today's world is faced with a complex and constantly changing geopolitical landscape. Tensions that occur in the world such as the South China Sea, Ukraine, the Middle East make many countries in the world wary, including Indonesia. Indonesia as the largest archipelagic country needs a sea defense strategy to safeguard its national interests. This research aims to benefit from the Scapa flow battle to strengthen Indonesia's sea defenses. This research uses the literature study method. The results showed that the strongest defense can be penetrated if not equipped with strategy and careful preparation. In conclusion: in addition to the strategic geographical location, it is necessary to pay attention to other factors such as layered defense systems, conducting patrols and tight guard around sea bases, the use of the latest technology to detect and intercept submarines, and good training for personnel.

Revealing the Identity, History and Nature Conservation Status of Royal Navy Vessel Steam Pinnace 744, in Lyness, Scapa Flow, Orkney Isles

Revealing the Identity, History and Nature Conservation Status of Royal Navy Vessel Steam Pinnace 744, in Lyness, Scapa Flow, Orkney Isles

Arthur Jacob Marder: A Glorifier of the British Sea Power

In this article the author analyses the academic career of Arthur Jacob Marder, a prominent student of British naval policy in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Even though he graduated from Harvard, Marder faced serious difficulties in obtaining a position at American universities because of the ethnic and religious prejudices prevalent in the 1930s. Marder chose British naval policy of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as his field of research. A key issue in this vast area of study were the reforms put in place by Admiral John Fisher to prepare the British Navy for the Great War. His first monograph, “The Anatomy of British Sea Power”, was published in 1940. After encountering restrictions on access to British Admiralty documents in the 1940s and 1950s, Marder turned to private archives to locate sources for his study. He managed to publish both Sir Herbert Richmond's diaries and the three-volume correspondence of Sir John Fisher. The five-volume treatise “From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow” was the crowning achievement of Marder's research. Marder is considered the founder of the classic concept of the so-called naval revolution of Sir John Fisher. Marder had the unique opportunity to study British naval documents, most of which no longer exist today and are forever lost to future generations of historians. This is the primary reason why Marder's work retains its significance to this day.

Bloody Orkney? A comparison of the perceptions held by sailors and the reality of leisure and recreational opportunities at Scapa Flow during the First World War

Scapa Flow became the primary naval base for the main Royal Navy fleet during the First World War. The ‘newness’ of Scapa as a naval base meant that it lacked any of the leisure and recreational opportunities that the ‘home’ naval ports, such as Portsmouth, offered. This led to Scapa gaining a reputation as being a poor location for sailors to be stationed. This article examines whether Scapa Flow’s poor reputation with sailors was justified. It demonstrates that at Scapa Flow, the Royal Navy, for the first time, became the lead provider of leisure and recreational opportunities, while actively re-enforcing societal class distinctions. It establishes that while engagement by seamen in leisure opportunities was widespread, the continuing perception of a lack of recreational and leisure opportunities was the primary reason behind Scapa Flow’s poor reputation.

A new range-extending record of the invasive sea squirt Styela clava in the north of Scotland

A new record of an individual of the invasive sea squirt, Styela clava, is reported from Scapa Flow in Orkney, Scotland. This represents a 1.54° latitudinal extension (168 km) from the previous northern-most record in UK waters. Diver surveys of hard substrates in the immediate area, part of local biosecurity protocols, did not find any additional individuals. Possible transport vectors, likelihood of an established reproductively active population, and implications to local biodiversity are discussed.

Evaluation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Pollution From the HMS Royal Oak Shipwreck and Effects on Sediment Microbial Community Structure

Despite many shipwrecks containing oil there is a paucity of studies investigating their impact on surrounding environments. This study evaluates any potential effect the World War II shipwreck HMS Royal Oak is having on surrounding benthic sediments in Scapa Flow, Scotland. HMS (Her Majesty’s Ship) Royal Oak sank in 1939, subsequently leaked oil in the 1960s and 1990s, and is estimated to still hold 697 tonnes of fuel oil. In this study, sediments were analysed, over a 17.5 cm depth profile, along a 50–950 m cruciform transect away from the shipwreck. Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) revealed low concentrations (205.91 ± 50.15 μg kg–1 of dry sediment), which did not significantly differ with either distance from the shipwreck or sediment depth. PAH concentrations were well below the effects-range low (ERL) for the OSPAR (Oslo/Paris convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) maritime area. The average Pyrogenic Index, in sediments around HMS Royal Oak, was 1.06 (±0.34), indicating PAHs were pyrogenic rather than petrogenic. Moreover, analysis of sediment microbiomes revealed no significant differences in bacterial community structure with distance from the shipwreck, with extremely low levels of obligate hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (OHCB; 0.21% ± 0.54%). Both lines of evidence suggest that sampled sediments are not currently being impacted by petrogenic hydrocarbons and show no long-term impact by previous oil-spills from HMS Royal Oak.

Book Review: The Last Days of the High Seas Fleet: From Mutiny to Scapa Flow

Book Review: The Last Days of the High Seas Fleet: From Mutiny to Scapa Flow

A study of decompression sickness using recorded depth-time profiles

122,129 dives by 10,358 recreational divers were recorded by dive computers from 11 manufacturers in an exploratory study of how dive profile, breathing gas (air or nitrox [N2/O2] mixes), repetitive diving, gender, age, and dive site conditions influenced observed decompression sickness (DCSobs). Thirty-eight reports were judged as DCS. Overall DCSobs was 3.1 cases/10⁴ dives. Three dive groups were studied: Basic (live-aboard and shore/dayboat), Cozumel Dive Guides, and Scapa Flow wreck divers. A probabilistic decompression model, BVM(3), controlled dive profile variability. Chi-squared test, t-test, logistic regression, and log-rank tests evaluated statistical associations. (a) DCSobs was 0.7/10⁴ (Basic), 7.6/10⁴ (Guides), and 17.3/104 (Scapa) and differed after control for dive variability (p ≺ 0.001). (b) DCSobs was greater for 22%-29% nitrox (12.6/10⁴) than for 30%-50% nitrox (2.04/10⁴) (p ≤ 0.0064) which did not differ from air (2.97/1010⁴). (c) For daily repetitive dives (≺12-hour surface intervals (SI)), DCS occurred only following one or two dives (4.3/1010⁴ DCSobs; p ≺ 0.001) where SIs were shorter than after three or more dives. (d) For multiday repetitive dives (SIs ≺ 48 hours), DCS was associated with high multiday repetitive dive counts only for Guides (p = 0.0018). (e) DCSobs decreased with age at 3%/year (p ≤ 0.0144). (f) Males dived deeper (p ≺ 0.001) but for less time than females (p ≺ 0.001). Collecting dive profiles with dive computers and controlling for profile variability by probabilistic modeling was feasible, but analytical results require independent confirmation due to limited observed DCS. Future studies appear promising if more DCS cases are gathered, stakeholders cooperate, and identified data collection problems are corrected.

Applying social impact assessment (SIA) principles in assessing contribution of cultural heritage to social sustainability in rural landscapes

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to propose the use of social impact assessment (SIA) principles to evaluate the contribution of cultural heritage to social sustainability, supporting both a people-centered and socially responsible approach to heritage management. Design/methodology/approach Specifically, the paper explores SIA as a methodological tool for post-project evaluation, used to define projects’ contributions to aspects of social sustainability through analyzing impacts of participation in a rural context case study, that of the Scapa Flow landscape heritage scheme in Orkney Islands, Scotland, UK. Findings Based on research findings from the thematic analysis of 40 semi-structured interviews on impacts (with heritage managers, planners and participants in the scheme), the paper proposes a combination of heritage value assessment process with social impact identification to achieve a context-relevant assessment of social sustainability. Existing research around social capital and sense of place supports the analysis of relevant impacts and heritage values. Findings support overlaps between socio-environmental impacts, when looking at the role of heritage for community well-being in rural contexts. Research limitations/implications The qualitative approach allows for a context-relevant, bottom up impact assessment and allows for multiple stakeholders perceptions to be included. Practical implications The proposed methodological approach has greater implications for the work of institutions and professionals involved in project evaluations that can inform participatory heritage project planning, ensuring high social relevance. Social implications Application of SIA principles in heritage sector can increase social benefits of heritage projects and enable wider community participation in processes of heritage management. Originality/value Through this case study, the effectiveness of SIA principles when applied in cultural heritage project evaluation is discussed, reflecting on a novel methodology for impact assessment in heritage.

The Rolt Memorial Lecture 2018: Science and Engineering at War in Orkney

ABSTRACTInitially conceived as a contribution to a conference which was to have been based in Caithness and was to have included a visit to Orkney, this paper examines the scientific and technological background to some of the wartime remains associated with the defence of Scapa Flow, the Royal Navy’s principal fleet anchorage in home waters in World Wars I and II. Summarising the surviving evidence of selected aspects of vessel-related, marine and aerial science and engineering around Scapa Flow, it is prefaced by a short account of Tom Rolt’s own wartime career, and concludes with a comparative appreciation of his place in the pantheon of literary engineers.

Comparing anadromous brown trout Salmo trutta in small, neighbouring catchments across contrasting landscapes: What is the role of environment in determining life-history characteristics?

Study of anadromous brown trout Salmo trutta in Orkney, U.K., burns (small streams) with a common-garden sea in Scapa Flow supports the key role of nutrient availability in fresh water, independent of day length, as a determinant of smolt age, with a systematic increase in mean smolt age from 1 to 3years related inversely to productivity. Whole catchment (8km2 ) population budgets indicated annual smolt production of around 650 individuals from approximately 100 spawners. Egg-to-smolt survival was 0·65%, while marine survival was estimated from mark-recapture to be between 3·5 and 10%. The question of B-type growth (accelerated growth immediately prior to or during smolt migration) was also addressed, with a strong negative correlation between B-type growth and size at end of winter suggesting that this represents a freshwater compensatory growth response. The data obtained indicate the potential importance of small catchments for supporting anadromous Salmo trutta populations and suggest that small runs of spawners (<100 individuals) are adequate to maintain stocks in such situations. Furthermore, they support the key role of freshwater productivity in determining life-history characteristics over small spatial scales, with Orkney providing a useful natural laboratory for future research into metapopulation genetic structuring and environmental factors at a tractable scale.

Microplastic contamination of intertidal sediments of Scapa Flow, Orkney: A first assessment

The concentration of microplastic particles and fibres was determined in the intertidal sediments at selected sites in Scapa Flow, Orkney, using a super-saturated NaCl flotation technique to extract the plastic and FT-IR spectroscopy to determine the polymer types. Mean concentrations were 730 and 2300kg−1 sediment (DW), respectively. Detailed spatial and quantitative analysis revealed that their distribution was a function of proximity to populated areas and associated wastewater effluent, industrial installations, degree of shore exposure and complex tidal flow patterns. Sediment samples from Orkney showed similar levels of microplastic contamination as in two highly populate industrialized mainland UK areas, The Clyde and the Firth of Forth. It was concluded that relative remoteness and a comparative small island population are not predictors of lower microplastic pollution. Furthermore, a larger concerted effort across Scotland and the UK is required to establish a baseline microplastic database for the evaluation of future policy measures.

The demographics and morphometries of biogenic reefs: important considerations in conservation management

Modiolus modiolus L. (horse mussel) reefs are a priority marine habitat of high conservation value that is currently listed as endangered and/or threatened across its European distribution. Population structure, density or shell morphology may influence the biodiversity of a reef, either directly or indirectly. Thus, such metrics are important considerations for successful conservation management of these biodiversity hotspots. Population structure, shell morphology and growth rates were examined in M. modiolus reefs across the UK range of the habitat to examine differences between key populations, including those near the Lleyn Peninsula in Wales (southern range), off Port Appin in Western Scotland (mid-range) and in Scapa Flow in the Orkney Isles, Scotland (northern range). Additionally, the influence of physical conditions (temperature and tidal flow) to growth rate and predicted maximum shell length for each population was examined. Growth rates were determined using acetate peels of sectioned shells. Lower juvenile abundance was observed in Scapa Flow. Small, narrow-shaped shells were found to be characteristic of North Lleyn mussels, and larger, globular-shaped shells were characteristic of mussels in Scapa Flow and off Port Appin. Mussels in Scapa Flow were slower growing, yet reached a longer asymptotic length (L∞) than mussels of Port Appin and North Lleyn. Growth curves from sites within this study were analysed with other published data. A trend of higher L∞ at higher latitudes and at lower flow rates was observed. Variations in growth and age are discussed in relation to flow regimes, connectivity to other reefs, density and latitude.

Archaeological Assessment of Second World War Anti-Torpedo Close Protection Pontoons in Scapa Flow, Orkney

This paper presents the outcomes of sidescan sonar and archaeological diving surveys in 2015 of two wrecked vessels located off Flotta Island, Orkney, North Scotland. Archival research indicates these are the remains of Anti-Torpedo Close Protection Pontoons (ATCPP), an experimental protection device used for close protection of naval vessels at anchor in Scapa Flow from attack by aircraft-launch torpedoes. The pontoons were only in operation in Scapa Flow for 13 months (March 1941-April 1942) and few were brought into service. As such they represent a rare heritage resource, for which very little is known about their operation.

Variability in the skeletal mineralogy of temperate bryozoans: the relative influence of environmental and biological factors

Bryozoans exhibit a highly variable geochemistry within their calcium carbonate skeletons. Previous studies have predominantly attributed this variability to differences in seawa- ter temperature influencing the relative deposition of aragonite and calcite, and the extent of mag- nesium incorporation into the calcite lattice. However, the patterns and scale of this variability have not been examined in detail. We conducted a high-replicate, multi-site study on the skeletal mineralogy of temperate Northern Hemisphere bryozoans to investigate the range of skeletal aragonite and Mg-calcite variability between species and the relative influence of environmental and biological factors on skeletal biogeochemistry. During a cruise in May 2012 in Scapa Flow, Orkney, Northeast Scotland, 480 specimens from 3 bryozoan species were collected by SCUBA diving. Samples were obtained from 5 study sites with similar depths and physical characteristics. All specimens were collected within the same week and were selected to be of similar size, age and breeding status. The results of X-ray diffraction analysis showed that wt% MgCO3 in calcite and wt% aragonite in total CaCO3 were statistically different between sites for all species. This may be explained by differential population connectivity between sites influenced by the tidal regimes of Scapa Flow. No temperate bryozoan species showed the expected positive trends of increasing wt% MgCO3 in calcite or wt% aragonite in total CaCO3 with seawater temperature. Based on the data generated in this study, we suggest that both environmental and biological factors are involved in the control of skeletal mineralogy in some temperate bryozoan species.

Insights from archaeological analysis and interpretation of marine data sets to inform marine cultural heritage management and planning of wave and tidal energy development for Orkney Waters and the Pentland Firth, NE Scotland

The Orkney archipelago has a rich heritage that includes the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site, Viking settlements, harbours supplying Hudson's Bay Company ships, and the wartime naval base of Scapa Flow. This rich history has left its mark on the seabed but accurate maps showing the location and character of surviving seabed archaeology do not exist to the same extent as for archaeology on land. ORCA Marine was commissioned by Historic Scotland to work with the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland in interrogating marine data sets to enhance historic environment records of Orkney Waters and the Pentland Firth. These waters were prioritised for their history of maritime activity and to help guide planning and developments in an area highlighted by the Scottish Government for marine renewable energy.A variety of recent and legacy datasets, including wreck databases; sonar data gathered by public sector bodies; aerial photography; seabed cores; Admiralty charts; and local knowledge, were examined for their effectiveness in discovering and interpreting marine cultural heritage cost-effectively. A methodology was developed that enabled marine cultural heritage information to be quickly assimilated within the national and regional inventories for dissemination online. Polygonisation of records resulted in GIS-based shapefiles identifying site extents, and areas of archaeological potential in relation to wrecks, submerged prehistoric landscapes, anchorages and fishing areas.Substantial gaps in data coverage were identified and areas of the seabed have been surveyed at resolutions that are sufficient to detect large upstanding remains such as iron shipwrecks but insufficient to identify smaller archaeological features. Other geophysical datasets have been created at a resolution detailed enough to allow the recognition of smaller anomalies but in some cases processing of the data has removed small anomalies of interest to archaeologists. Intensively used marine areas often contain the most artefactual remains such as historic ports being developed to service the marine renewable industry. Zones of high wave and tidal energy favoured for renewable energy devices include navigation channels and hazards where a large number of wrecks are documented. Transmission cable routes cross deep water where 20th-century wartime losses occurred. Planning and development of infrastructure relating to renewables may also interact with significant built heritage and archaeology on the foreshore and coast edge.

Scapa Flow 1919: o navalismo germânico e o sistema internacional do pós-guerra

Scapa Flow 1919: o navalismo germânico e o sistema internacional do pós-guerra

The strength and phase of the tidal stream

The strength and timing of tidal stream energy in a region is affected both by external hydraulic factors (the driving potential for currents) and by the internal configuration of channels and reservoirs. If we consider a single tidal frequency and take a linear approximation, the dynamics and kinematics can be reduced to an analogous electrical circuit. The external factors can then always be represented by either a voltage source and series impedance (Thévenin circuit) or by a current source and a parallel impedance (Norton circuit). A simple, short channel between two major basins depends on inertia and friction and can be represented simply by a resistor and inductor. Longer channels or channels connected to harbours can be represented using additional circuitry and impedances, including capacitors. The analogy to “capacitance” is provided by wetted area and it is shown that an area of >100km2 is sufficient to alter the strength and timing of the tidal stream for Gigawatt-scale resources. In particular, features in the currents of Pentland Firth can be explained by the capacitive properties of Scapa Flow. Options for extracting tidal energy can be explored by adding load resistors to the circuit.

Evaluation of the MIDTAL microarray chip for monitoring toxic microalgae in the Orkney Islands, U.K.

Harmful or nuisance algal blooms can cause economic damage to fisheries and tourism. Additionally, toxins produced by harmful algae and ingested via contaminated shellfish can be potentially fatal to humans. The seas around the Orkney Islands, UK currently hold a number of toxic algal species which cause shellfishery closures in most years. Extensive and costly monitoring programs are carried out to detect harmful microalgae before they reach action levels. However, the ability to distinguish between toxic and non-toxic strains of some algae is not possible using these methods. The microarrays for the detection of toxic algae (MIDTAL) microarray contains rRNA probes for toxic algal species/strains which have been adapted and optimized for microarray use. In order to investigate the use of the chip for monitoring in the Orkney Islands, samples were collected between 2009 and 2011 from Brings Deep, Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands, UK; RNA was extracted and hybridized with generation 2 and 3.1 of the chip. The data were then compared to cell counts performed under light microscopy and in the case of Alexandrium tamarense to qPCR data targeting the saxitoxin gene and the LSU-rRNA gene. A good agreement between cell numbers and microarray signal was found for A. tamarense, Pseudo-nitzschia sp., Dinophysis sp. (r<0.5, for all) in addition to this there the chip successfully detected a large bloom of Karenia mikimotoi (r<0.70) in August and September 2011. Overall, there was good improvement in probe signal between generation 2 and generation 3.1 of the chip with much less variability and more consistent results and better correlation between the probes. The chip performed well for A. tamarense group I signal to cell numbers in calibrations (r>0.9). However, in field samples, this correlation was slightly lower suggesting interactions between all species in the sample may affect signal. Overall, the chip showed it could identify the presence of target species in field samples although some work is needed to improve the quantitative nature of the chip before it would be suitable for monitoring in the Orkney Islands.

Exploiting the Enemy in the Orkneys: The Employment of Italian Prisoners of War on the Scapa Flow Barriers during the Second World War

The British naval base at Scapa Flow in the Orkneys played a vital role during the Second World War for the Allied war effort. It housed the British Home Fleet and provided a strategic military base for Allied operations in the North Sea, Atlantic and the Arctic. Although Scapa Flow’s military history is well served, the barriers built by Italian prisoners of war (POWs) to strengthen its defences in the early war years have received little attention.1 Britain faced a peculiar dilemma in the Orkneys: defences needed to be fortified given Scapa Flow’s key location and military role, but manpower was extremely scarce. Civilians were reluctant to work on the islands due to harsh and dangerous working conditions. Since efforts to attract them via compulsion and bonus schemes, and to employ migrant workers were insufficient, the government employed 1,200 Italian POWs instead, despite the scheme’s doubtful legality under the Geneva Convention. This article examines the history and significance of the Italians’ employment in the Orkneys and demonstrates that their contribution was vital for the construction of the Churchill barriers. Previous studies have neglected the multiple strikes by the prisoners and their protests against illegal work and some wrongly assume that the prisoners were not participating in the construction of the barriers. This article explicitly examines the legality issue and the prisoners’ extensive employment. Although their employment violated the Geneva Convention, British authorities and neutral delegates deemed it legal, thus securing the barriers’ completion.