Laser Beam Scanning Research Articles

Photovoltaic Charge Lithography on Passive Dielectric Substrates Using Fe:LiNbO3 Stamps

AbstractPhotovoltaic Fe:LiNbO3 is an outstanding material platform able to photo‐generate versatile charge patterns, useful for a broad variety of applications. However, in some cases, its photorefractive effect, light absorption, and active ferroelectric properties may interfere with the optimum operation of certain devices based on Fe:LiNbO3. Here, a novel optoelectronic method is proposed and demonstrated to transfer photovoltaic charge patterns from Fe:LiNbO3 to non‐photovoltaic passive substrates, thus removing these possible limitations. The method, denominated as photovoltaic charge lithography (PVCL), resembles the operation of a stamp and does not require external high‐voltage supplies or electron/ion beams. Upon contact between the active Fe:LiNbO3 stamp and a passive dielectric substrate, the light‐induced charge pattern can be faithfully mirrored on the passive substrate. The imprinted pattern is probed and characterized by dielectrophoretic and electrophoretic particle trapping. The results reveal that the charge builds up on the passive substrate during contact, allowing charge tunability. Moreover, arbitrary charge distributions can be flexibly tailored, using scanning laser beams or spatially structured light. Overall, PVCL opens the possibility of printing complex 1D/2D charge patterns of controlled polarity on different passive dielectric materials, enhancing the technological potential of Fe:LiNbO3 photovoltaic platforms.

Modeling window smoothing effect hidden in fringe projection profilometry

The reconstruction using MEMS micro-vibration mirrors is the most promising. However, the influence mechanism of the line laser, which serves as the sole light source of MEMS-based systems, on reconstruction is unclear. To fill this theoretical gap, we propose the first interpretable laser influence model called the window smoothing model. This model reveals the window smoothing effect of laser beam scanning and quantifies its impact on modulation intensity through a decay factor. Given the absence of lens defocusing issues, the window smoothing effect becomes the primary factor affecting the contrast of fringe patterns. Therefore, a novel method using laser parameters to evaluate system accuracy is introduced. Leveraging these insights, we further propose an optimal fringe number calibration method, also based on laser parameters, to maximize the reconstruction accuracy of any given system. Finally, experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed method. As the first model tailored for MEMS systems, the window smoothing model is interpretable, highly accurate, and universal. Therefore, this model can provide new insights and a theoretical foundation for achieving high-performance MEMS-based reconstruction.

تأثير استعمال ليزر النيوديميوم ياك (Nd-YAG) على البنية الدقيقة وصلابة سطح الفولاذ AISI1012

The unique characteristics of the laser beam such as directionality, monochromaticity, and brightness make it a very important tool in the surface treatment engineering. The concentrated heat in the laser beam can be precisely directed toward the processed region on the surface. The laser beam power, beam size, and scanning velocity are easily controlled during the different processing methods. Laser surface modifications of metallic materials, such as laser surface melting, laser surface alloying, and laser cladding are some of the most important methods to improve the mechanical properties of the processed layer on the surface. A pulsed Nd-YAG laser surface melted specimens of low carbon steel with a maximum power of 90W at different processing parameters. The rapid melt and solidification of the treated layer produced a refinement in the microstructure. The original microstructure of this steel (Ferrite + Pearlite) has been transformed to new phases of martensitic and bainitic structures. The melted layer consists of the melted pool, the heat affected zone, and the substrate. The maximum hardness of the laser melted layer is more than 400 HV. The effect of different lasers such as high power CW CO2 laser on the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of steel alloys will be carried out in future studies. Keywords: Nd-Yag Laser, Laser surface treatment, Microstructure and hardness of AISI1012 steel

Sheet conductance of laser-doped layers using a Gaussian laser beam: an effective depth approximation

Laser doping of silicon with pulsed and scanned laser beams is now well-established to obtain defect-free, doping profile tailored, and locally selectively doped regions with a high spatial resolution. Picking the correct laser parameters (pulse power, pulse shape, and scanning speed) impacts the depth and uniformity of the melted region geometry. This work performs laser doping on the surface of single crystalline silicon, using a pulsed and scanned laser profile with a Gaussian intensity distribution. A deposited boron oxide precursor layer serves as a doping source. Increasing the local inter-pulse distance xirr\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$x_\ ext {irr}$$\\end{document} between subsequent pulses causes a quadratic decrease of the sheet conductance Gsh\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$G_\ ext {sh}$$\\end{document} of the doped surface layer. Here, we present a simple geometric model that explains all experimental findings. The quadratic dependence stems from the approximately parabolic shape of the individual melted regions directly after the laser beam has hit the Si surface. The sheet resistance depends critically on the intersection depth dch\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$d_\ ext {ch}$$\\end{document} and the distance xirr\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$x_\ ext {irr}$$\\end{document} of overlap between two subsequent, neighboring pulses. The intersection depth dch\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$d_\ ext {ch}$$\\end{document} quadratically depends on the pulse distance xirr\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$x_\ ext {irr}$$\\end{document} and therefore also on the scanning speed vscan\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$v_\ ext {scan}$$\\end{document} of the laser. Finally, we present a simple model that reduces the complicated three dimensional, laterally inhomogeneous doping profile to an effective two-dimensional, homogeneously doped layer which varies its thickness with the scanning speed.

Bessel-Beam Single-Photon High-Resolution Imaging in Time and Space

Synchronous laser beam scanning is a common technique used in single-photon imaging where the spatial resolution is primarily determined by the beam divergence angle. In this context, Bessel beams have been investigated as they can overcome the diffraction limit associated with traditional Gaussian beams. Notably, the central spot of a Bessel beam retains its size almost unchanged within a non-diffractive distance. However, the presence of sidelobes in the Bessel beam can negatively impact spatial resolution. To address this challenge, we have developed a single-photon imaging system with high-depth resolution, which allows for the suppression of echo photons from the sidelobe light in the depth image, particularly when their flight time differs from that of the central spot. In our LiDAR setup, we successfully achieved high-resolution scanning imaging with a spatial resolution of approximately 0.5 mm while also demonstrating a high-depth resolution of 12 mm.

Role of fictive temperature distribution involved in CO2 laser polishing of fused silica and its optimization for achieving even heat-affected zones

CO2 laser polishing process is a highly effective way for enhancing the surface quality and laser-induced damage threshold of fused silica optics. Nevertheless, due to the thermal history and spatial gradient of the thermodynamic temperature, the heat-affected zones can be formed unevenly on the surface with an increased fictive temperature, which causes the material densification and residual stress. In this work, a 3D model of structural relaxation coupled with temperature and flow fields was innovatively established to explore the role of fictive temperature distribution involved in CO2 laser polishing of fused silica. The Raman spectrum was applied to verify this model. Subsequently, the impacts of laser beam power, scanning speed, track overlapping, substrate temperature on the fictive temperature were discussed. The results indicate that decreasing the scanning speed and increasing the substrate temperature can decrease the fictive temperature. Additionally, a higher track overlapping can reduce the height of the fictive temperature “tool mark”. Moreover, an optimization strategy based on laser beam scanning speed was proposed based on the uniform distribution of fictive temperature. The depth difference of the heat-affected zones was reduced from 164.26 μm to 31.74 μm. This work could be used to quantitatively predict the 3D fictive temperature distribution and proposed an optimization strategy based on scanning speed to suppress the non-uniformity of fictive temperature distribution, which can provide significant theoretical guidance for CO2 laser polishing technology of fused silica optics.

Double-clad optical fiber as a single-point sensor of imaging quality for scanning laser system

We have developed a single-point optical sensor of imaging quality based on a double-clad optical fiber for laser beam scanning imaging systems. The optimal imaging quality, primarily affected by the accurate focusing, is determined by maximizing the ratio of the optical power coupled to the single-mode core and the inner multi-mode cladding of the double-clad fiber collecting the light scattered from the sample. We present simulations of the sensor’s performance at different levels of defocus and validate it experimentally by optimizing focus when imaging a scattering phantom and a living human eye with a scanning laser ophthalmoscope. In contrast to the existing image-based optimization procedures, our sensor provides feedback independent of illumination intensity or sample reflectivity that can be obtained for each image point, thus exceeding the imaging framerate. Importantly, our sensor can seamlessly be integrated with most laser scanning imaging systems, providing online feedback for correction optics.

Picosecond Laser Processing of Hierarchical Micro–Nanostructures on Titanium Alloy upon Pre‐ and Postanodization: Morphological, Structural, and Chemical Effects

Recent publications indicate that the order of electrochemical anodization (before or after the laser processing step) plays an important role for the response of bone‐forming osteoblasts—an effect that can be utilized for improving permanent dental or removable bone implants. For exploring these different surface functionalities, multimethod morphological, structural, and chemical characterizations are performed in combination with electrochemical pre‐ and postanodization for two different characteristic microspikes covered by nanometric laser‐induced periodic surface structures on Ti–6Al–4V upon irradiation with near‐infrared ps‐laser pulses (1030 nm wavelength, ≈1 ps pulse duration, 67 and 80 kHz pulse repetition frequency) at two distinct sets of laser fluence and beam scanning parameters. This work involves morphological and topographical investigations by scanning electron microscopy and white light interference microscopy, structural material examinations via X‐ray diffraction, and micro‐Raman spectroscopy, as well as near‐surface chemical analyses by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy and hard X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results allow to qualify the mean laser ablation depth, assess the spike geometry and surface roughness parameters, and provide new detailed insights into the near‐surface oxidation that may affect the different cell growth behavior for pre‐ or postanodized medical implants.

Beam shaping in light-sheet microscopy: an experimental analysis

Abstract Thanks to its unique optical sectioning capability, light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has proven to be a powerful technique for volumetric imaging of entire model organisms with high spatial and temporal resolution. For light sheet generation with scanned laser beams, holographic beam shaping offers precise control over the optical fields exciting the fluorescence. Various illumination schemes have been proposed, aiming for best image quality with regard to axial resolution, optical sectioning, illumination homogeneity and photobleaching while at the same time retaining a large field of view. Here, we have engineered and characterized a variety of beams and analyzed their imaging performance by using phantom samples and zebrafish embryos. These data may assist researchers to select the light sheet best suited to the imaging application at hand.

An Experiment-Based Variable Compensation Method to Improve the Geometric Accuracy of Sub-mm Features Fabricated by Stereolithography (SLA)

In this paper, we present an experimental procedure to enhance the dimensional accuracy of fabrication via stereolithography (SLA) of features at the sub-mm scale. Deviations in sub-mm hemispherical cavity diameters were detected and measured on customized samples by confocal microscopy. The characterization and experimental observations of samples allowed the identification of inaccuracy sources, mainly due to the laser beam scanning strategy and the incomplete removal of uncured liquid resin in post-processing (i.e., IPA washing). As a technology baseline, the measured dimensional errors on cavity diameters were up to −46%. A compensation method was defined and implemented, resulting in relevant improvements in dimensional accuracy. However, measurements on sub-mm cavities having different sizes revealed that a constant compensation parameter (i.e., C = 85, 96, 120 μm) is not fully effective at the sub-mm scale, where average errors remain at −24%, −18.8%, and −16% for compensations equal to 85, 96 and 120 μm, respectively. A further experimental campaign allowed the identification of an effective nonlinear compensation law where the compensation parameter depends on the sub-mm feature size C = f(D). Results show a sharp improvement in dimensional accuracy on sub-mm cavity fabrication, with errors consistently below +8.2%. The proposed method can be extended for the fabrication of any sub-mm features without restrictions on the specific technology implementation.

Acousto-optic holography for pseudo-two-dimensional dynamic light patterning.

Optical systems use acousto-optic deflectors (AODs) mostly for fast angular scanning and spectral filtering of laser beams. However, AODs may transform laser light in much broader ways. When time-locked to the pulsing of low repetition rate laser amplifiers, AODs permit the holographic reconstruction of 1D and pseudo-two-dimensional (ps2D) intensity objects of rectangular shape by controlling the amplitude and phase of the light field at high (20-200kHz) rates for microscopic light patterning. Using iterative Fourier transformations (IFTs), we searched for AOD-compatible holograms to reconstruct the given ps2D target patterns through either phase-only or complex light field modulation. We previously showed that phase-only holograms can adequately render grid-like patterns of diffraction-limited points with non-overlapping diffraction orders, while side lobes to the target pattern can be cured with an apodization mask. Dense target patterns, in contrast, are typically encumbered by apodization-resistant speckle noise. Here, we show the denoised rendering of dense ps2D objects by complex acousto-optic holograms deriving from simultaneous optimization of the amplitude and phase of the light field. Target patterns lacking ps2D symmetry, although not translatable into single holograms, were accessed by serial holography based on a segregation into ps2D-compatible components. The holograms retrieved under different regularizations were experimentally validated in an AOD random-access microscope. IFT regularizations characterized in this work extend the versatility of acousto-optic holography for fast dynamic light patterning.

Simple modulation of Lissajous MEMS laser beam scanning with reconfigurable structured light patterns for 3D imaging

Structured light 3D imaging systems commonly employ panel-based projectors or 1-axis MEMS mirrors with beam expander lens to project multi-frame barcodes or dot clouds, addressing challenges posed by objects with multi-scale feature sizes. However, these methods often result in large system volumes due to the required projection multi-lens modules, high hardware costs, or limited light pattern generation capabilities that hindering measurement precision enhancement. This paper introduces an innovative approach to reconfigurable spatial light pattern projection using a single bi-axial MEMS mirror with Lissajous scanning. In contrast to the pixel-by-pixel pre-defined image patterns encoding of conventional 2D laser beam scanning, the proposed method simply aligns the MEMS bi-axial resonance frequencies with laser pulse modulation, enabling the projection of diverse structured light patterns such as stripes, lines, dot matrices, and random dot clouds, which can adapt to different 3D imaging algorithms demands. It eliminates the need for multi-frame encoding and streamlines data caching, simplifies digital logic hardware. A prototype 3D imaging system was developed to demonstrate the mathematical model for laser modulation and the technical feasibility based on the proposed principle. Beyond its lens-free essence, the system supports focal-free optics and a compact projection form factor, which accommodates to a broad range of projection distances and field-of-views based on object’s location. 3D depth map of polynomial surface and blocks objects are extracted through single-frame pattern projection with a relative high accuracy. The presented modulation theory for diverse structured light pattern generation opens avenues for versatile and compact 3D imaging applications of LiDAR and robotic 3D vision.

Process Parameter Optimization for CO2 Laser Polishing of Fused Silica Using the Taguchi Method.

Fused silica was polished to a high quality by a CO2 laser beam with a rapid scanning rate. The rapid scanning rate produced a line laser heat source, resulting in a "polishing line" during the polishing process. The Taguchi method was used to evaluate the comprehensive influence of polishing process parameters on the polishing qualities. Four factors, namely the length of laser reciprocating scanning (A), laser beam scanning speed (B), feed speed (C), and defocusing amount (D), were investigated in this study. The optimal process parameter combination (A1B1C1D1) was obtained. The surface roughness of fused silica was reduced from Ra = 0.157 μm to 0.005 μm. Through analysis of variance (ANOVA), it was found that laser beam scanning speed (B) had a significant influence on the polishing quality. The interaction of the two factors plays a decisive role in the determination of the best process parameters, and the influence of other multi-factor interaction can be ignored; the interaction between A × B is the largest, with a contribution of 42.69%.

Microstructural evolution and mechanical behavior of Custom 465 precipitation hardening stainless steel fabricated via laser powder bed fusion

Custom 465(C465), a precipitation hardening stainless steel (PHSS) combining high strength and excellent corrosion resistance, has found myriad applications in diverse industries, particularly serving as a candidate for next-generation landing gear materials. However, no work on the additive manufacturing of this steel has been reported in open literature to date. In this study, laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) was employed for the first time to fabricate C465 to gain knowledge on its printability, microstructure features and mechanical performance. It is found that C465 is crack-sensitive, but the inner cracks can be closed through hot isostatic pressing at 1155 °C for 3 h. Furthermore, a finite element model was constructed to evaluate the effect of laser beam scanning parameters on the melt pool temperature profile. An equation was proposed to predict the austenite fraction (11.3%–19.1 %) in the as-built C465. The microstructure of the LPBF-processed C465 after heat treatment was featured with martensite lath with dispersed nano-sized Ni3Ti precipitates, as well as 5.7%–7.0 % austenite. Tensile tests demonstrated that the LPBF-processed C465 after heat treatment exhibits an excellent combination of strength (UTS = 1761 MPa, YS = 1691 MPa) and ductility (6 %), comparable to that of the conventionally wrought C465. This study demonstrates a practicable L-PBF approach for processing C465 parts with satisfactory mechanical properties, paving the way for the application of additively manufactured C465 components in diverse industries.

Leaf properties estimation enhancement over heterogeneous vegetation by correcting for terrestrial laser scanning beam divergence effect

The need for an accurate description of forest structure is increased as it is a key for monitoring carbon storage, energy, and mass exchange, and different ecosystem functions. The leaf area index (LAI), the leaf area density (ul), and the leaf inclination distribution function (LIDF) are regarded as important and critical keys allowing the characterization of the forest structure. The dependency between these properties and the heterogeneity of the forest makes their estimation challenging and delicate. In this context, despite the expanding body of works reporting forest structure properties retrieval using infinitesimal footprint size terrestrial LiDAR system (TLS) data, there seem to be few works evaluating the influence of the TLS beam divergence effect (i.e. its size increase with distance from the sensor), on the estimation accuracy, even though the influence is not negligible. In this study, we aim to jointly estimate LAI/ul and LIDF using non-infinitesimal footprint size TLS data based on forward/inverse radiative transfer (RT) modeling. Our approach assumes a uniform distribution of azimuth angles enabling us to attain valuable insights into inclination angles and leaf area density while simplifying our computational efforts. The forward modeling allows an understanding of the interaction between vegetation structure properties and TLS light beams, while the inversion allows retrieving the properties given the TLS data. The inversion technique is based on the maximum likelihood estimator (MLE). Our problem turns out to be a non-linear and high-dimensional cost function to be optimized. To tackle this complexity, the global optimization technique, the shuffled complex evolution (SCE-UA), is adapted to find the globally optimal solution. Our developed approach is validated with simulated and actual forest TLS point clouds acquired from Estonian Pine, Birch, and Spruce stands. Our findings using simulated data prove that our estimates are in agreement with the actual ul and LIDF values with (MAEul∈0.00120.0043) and (RMSEul∈0.01370.0224). In the actual case, RMSELAI for Pine, Birch and Spruce stands are 0.1066, 0.014, and 0.070, respectively. In all cases, our approach outperforms state-of-the-art techniques.

Multiphysical simulation of hot cracking in Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion

This study extends an existing comprehensive computational framework to gain insight on hot cracking in the simulation of laser-based additive manufacturing via powder bed fusion. A novel approach to predict hot crack susceptibility based on vapor cavitation, building on a conceptual model akin to the Rappaz-Drezet-Gremaud criterion is introduced. Unlike conventional practices involving ex-situ evaluation of a criterion, the proposed model emerges implicitly from the underlying multiphysical modeling framework. The model exhibits sensitivity to variations in both material attributes (e.g., alloy composition) and processing conditions (e.g., laser beam shape or scanning strategy). Furthermore, non-equilibrium solidification is incorporated in the underlying Mass-of-Fluid framework, and a model for multi-layer printing is introduced to extend the length and time scale, enabling the derivation of detailed thermal histories on near-part-scale level. Consequently, the framework proves pivotal in optimizing process parameters, transcending the limitations inherent in conventional single melt track computational experiments.

Large-aperture laser beam scanning system based on liquid crystal polarization grating

Large-aperture laser beam scanning system based on liquid crystal polarization grating

INFLUENCE OF PARAMETERS OF OPERATING CONDITIONS OF SELECTIVE LASER MELTING ON SPALL FRACTURE KINETICS OF 12Cr18Ni10Ti STEEL

The results are presented with regard to experimental studies of dynamic strength characteristics of samples made of 12Cr18Ni10Ti steel powder. They were obtained through selective laser melting with various parameters of a technological process at shock-wave compression up to pressures of ~7 GPa. Critical parameters of a process, in addition to powder characteristics, include laser operating conditions: a laser spot diameter, laser power, a laser beam scanning velocity, as well as a powder layer thickness, protective atmosphere, etc. It has been demonstrated that an increase in the scan laser power and a decrease in a powder layer thickness bring about a decrease in a number of internal defects in initial structures of samples. The results are given, which compare strength characteristics of these steels with properties of steel produced by a traditional technique of hot rolling. Shock-wave experiments were carried out using a light gas gun-type facility, which makes it possible to accelerate flat impactors to speeds of ~700 m/s; internal wave processes in samples were reproduced when recording a rate of movement of the sample's free surface via a PDV laser interferometer; a degree of spall fracture was determined by the help of a metallographic analysis of samples recovered in tests. It has been showed that steel samples made through a selective laser melting technique have high spall strength and a lower degree of damage compared to hot-rolled steel under the same conditions of high-speed shock loading. According to the results of the metallographic studies, the presence of internal defects in initial structures of samples associated with a choice of operating conditions of a manufacturing process does not affect a degree of their spall damage. At the same time, a wave pattern of shock wave propagation differs significantly for samples with and without defects.

Microstructural Modification of Cold-Sprayed Ti-Cr3C2 Composite Coating by Laser Remelting

Laser processing is an effective post-treatment method for modifying the structure and improving the properties of cold-sprayed coatings. In the present work, the possibility of fabricating a hard and wear-resistant Ti-based cermet coating by cold spray followed by laser remelting was studied. A mixture of titanium and chromium carbide powders in a ratio of 60/40 wt.% was deposited by cold spray onto a titanium alloy substrate, which ensured the formation of a composite coating with a residual chromium carbide content of about 12–13 wt.%. The optimal values of laser beam power (2 kW) and scanning speed (75 mm/s) leading to the qualitative fusion of the coating with the substrate with minimal porosity and absence of defects were revealed. The microstructure and phase composition of as-sprayed and remelted coatings were examined with SEM, EDS and XRD analysis. It was shown that the phase composition of the as-sprayed coating did not change compared to the feedstock mixture, while the remelted coating was transformed into a β-Ti(Cr) solid solution with uniformly distributed nonstoichiometric TiCx particles. Due to the change in microstructure and phase composition, the remelted coating was characterized by an attractive combination of higher microhardness (437 HV0.1) and lower specific wear rate (0.25 × 10−3 mm3/N × m) under dry sliding wear conditions compared to the as-sprayed coating and substrate. Laser remelting of the coating resulted in a change in the dominant wear mechanism from oxidative–abrasive to oxidative–adhesive with delamination.

Analysis of the sequentially coupled thermal–mechanical and cladding geometry of a Ni60A-25 %WC laser cladding composite coating

In this research, a three-dimensional (3D) transient finite element model based on a sequentially coupled thermal–mechanical analysis (SCTMA) is proposed to simulate the evolution of the temperature field and stress field as well as the cladding geometry of the Ni60A-25 % WC laser cladding composite coating. Based on the thermo-physical properties of Ni60A-25 % WC powder and the design of the double ellipsoidal heat source model, a 3D finite element model of double-layer laser cladding with two channels is established. The evolution of the temperature field and the residual stress field at different laser process parameters are investigated to evaluate the quality of the cladding layer. The impact of different laser cladding process parameters on the cladding dimensions is investigated. The dimensions of the simulated molten pool are analyzed by fitting a polynomial curve. The simulation results show that the laser power is proportional to the temperature, and the temperature growth rate of the coating is significantly higher than that of the substrate. The scanning speed is inversely proportional to the temperature. The maximum temperature of the cladding is 1.5 times the maximum temperature of the substrate. The temperature growth rate of the cladding layer is twice that of the substrate. Due to the asymmetry of the heat source in the multi-pass cladding process, the laser energy absorption rate is not the same on both sides of the melted layer. The double ellipsoidal heat source model has a larger diffusion range in the un-melted powder, resulting in asymmetry in the width direction of the cladding layer. The analysis of the residual stresses in the cladding layer shows that the residual compressive stresses in all paths increase with the increasing laser power. The normal x residual compressive stress in the coating and the maximum residual compressive stress occur at the end of the laser beam scan. The residual compressive stress in all paths decreases as the scanning speed increases. The results show that the dimensions of the molten pool are proportional to the laser power and inversely proportional to the scanning speed. The cladding geometry can be calculated with polynomial fitting equations at a selected laser power (500 W–2800 W) and scanning speed (1 mm/s–8 mm/s). The error analysis of the simulation and the experimental results can validate the proposed finite element simulation model. The error in the molten pool size is less than 20 % for the simulation and experimental results.