Scaffolds For Tissue Engineering Research Articles

Fabrication Strategies for Bioceramic Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering with Generative Design Applications.

The aim of this study is to provide an overview of the current state-of-the-art in the fabrication of bioceramic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering, with an emphasis on the use of three-dimensional (3D) technologies coupled with generative design principles. The field of modern medicine has witnessed remarkable advancements and continuous innovation in recent decades, driven by a relentless desire to improve patient outcomes and quality of life. Central to this progress is the field of tissue engineering, which holds immense promise for regenerative medicine applications. Scaffolds are integral to tissue engineering and serve as 3D frameworks that support cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. A wide array of materials has been explored for the fabrication of scaffolds, including bioceramics (i.e., hydroxyapatite, beta-tricalcium phosphate, bioglasses) and bioceramic-polymer composites, each offering unique properties and functionalities tailored to specific applications. Several fabrication methods, such as thermal-induced phase separation, electrospinning, freeze-drying, gas foaming, particle leaching/solvent casting, fused deposition modeling, 3D printing, stereolithography and selective laser sintering, will be introduced and thoroughly analyzed and discussed from the point of view of their unique characteristics, which have proven invaluable for obtaining bioceramic scaffolds. Moreover, by highlighting the important role of generative design in scaffold optimization, this review seeks to pave the way for the development of innovative strategies and personalized solutions to address significant gaps in the current literature, mainly related to complex bone defects in bone tissue engineering.

Multi-parameter design of triply periodic minimal surface scaffolds: from geometry optimization to biomechanical simulation

This study introduces a multi-parameter design methodology to create triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) scaffolds with predefined geometric characteristics. The level-set constant and unit cell lengths are systematically correlated with targeted porosity and minimum pore sizes. Network and sheet scaffolds featuring diamond, gyroid, and primitive level-set structures are generated. Three radially graded schemes are applied to each of the six scaffold type, accommodating radial variations in porosity and pore sizes. Computer simulations are conducted to assess the biomechanical performance of 18 scaffold models. Results disclose that diamond and gyroid scaffolds exhibit more expansive design ranges than primitive counterparts. While primitive scaffolds display the highest Young’s modulus and permeability, their lower yield strength and mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) adhesion render them unsuitable for bone scaffolds. Gyroid scaffolds demonstrate superior mechanical and permeability performances, albeit with slightly lower MSC adhesion than diamond scaffolds. Sheet scaffolds, characterized by more uniform material distribution, exhibit superior mechanical performance in various directions, despite slightly lower permeability. The higher specific surface area of sheet scaffolds contributes to elevated MSC adhesion. The stimulus factor analysis also revealed the superior differentiation potential of sheet scaffolds over network ones. The diamond sheet type demonstrated the optimal differentiation. Introducing radial gradations enhances axial mechanical performance at the expense of radial mechanical performance. Radially decreasing porosity displays the highest permeability, MSC adhesion, and differentiation capability, aligning with the structural characteristics of human bones. This study underscores the crucial need to balance diverse biomechanical properties of TPMS scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Centrifugally spun hydroxyapatite/carbon composite nanofiber scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

In recent years, advancements in tissue engineering have demonstrated the potential to expedite bone matrix formation, leading to shorter recovery times and decreased clinical challenges compared to conventional methods. Therefore, this study aims to develop composite carbon nanofibers (CNFs) integrated with nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) particles as scaffolds for bone tissue engineering applications. A key strategy in achieving this objective involves harnessing nanofibrous structures, which offer a high surface area, coupled with nHA particles expected to accelerate bone regeneration and enhance biological activity. To realize this, polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/nHA nanofibers were fabricated using the centrifugal spinning (C-Spin) technique and subsequently carbonized to yield CNF/nHA composite structures. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) confirmed C-Spin as a suitable method for PAN and CNF nanofiber production, with nHA particles uniformly dispersed throughout the nanofibrous structure. Carbonization resulted in reduced fiber diameter due to thermal decomposition and shrinkage of PAN molecules during the process. Furthermore, the incorporation of nHA particles into PAN lowered the stabilization temperature (by 5 °C–20 °C). Tensile tests revealed that PAN samples experienced an approximately 80% increase in ultimate tensile strength and a 187% increase in modulus with a 5 wt.% nHA loading. However, following carbonization, CNF samples exhibited a 50% decrease in strength compared to PAN samples. Additionally, the addition of nHA into CNF improved the graphitic structure. The incorporation of nHA particles into the spinning solution represents a viable strategy for enhancing CNF bioactivity.

In vitro and in vivo dissolution of biocompatible S59 glass scaffolds

Fabrication of porous tissue-engineering scaffolds from bioactive glasses (BAG) is complicated by the tendency of BAG compositions to crystallize in thermal treatments during scaffold manufacture. Here, experimental biocompatible glass S59 (SiO2 59.7 wt%, Na2O 25.5 wt%, CaO 11.0 wt%, P2O5 2.5 wt%, B2O3 1.3 wt%), known to be resistant to crystallization, was used in sintering of glass granules (300–500 µm) into porous scaffolds. The dissolution behavior of the scaffolds was then studied in vivo in rabbit femurs and under continuous flow conditions in vitro (14 days in vitro/56 days in vivo). The scaffolds were osteoconductive in vivo, as bone could grow into the scaffold structure. Still, the scaffolds could not induce sufficiently rapid bone ingrowth to replace the strength lost due to dissolution. The scaffolds lost their structure and strength as the scaffold necks dissolved. In vitro, S59 dissolved congruently throughout the 14-day experiments, resulting in only a slight reaction layer formation. Manufacturing BAG scaffolds from S59 that retain their amorphous structure was thus possible. The relatively rapid and stable dissolution of the scaffold implies that the glass S59 may have the potential to be used in composite implants providing initial strength and stable, predictable release of ions over longer exposure times.Graphical

The role of glycerol in manufacturing freeze-dried chitosan and cellulose foams for mechanically stable scaffolds in skin tissue engineering

Various strategies have extensively explored enhancing the physical and biological properties of chitosan and cellulose scaffolds for skin tissue engineering. This study presents a straightforward method involving the addition of glycerol into highly porous structures of two polysaccharide complexes: chitosan/carboxymethyl cellulose (Chit/CMC) and chitosan/oxidized cellulose (Chit/OC); during a one-step freeze-drying process. Adding glycerol, especially to Chit/CMC, significantly increased stability, prevented degradation, and improved mechanical strength by nearly 50%. Importantly, after 21 days of incubation in enzymatic medium Chit/CMC scaffold has almost completely decomposed, while foams reinforced with glycerol exhibited only 40% mass loss. It is possible due to differences in multivalent cations and polymer chain contraction, resulting in varied hydrogen bonding and, consequently, distinct physicochemical outcomes. Additionally, the scaffolds with glycerol improved the cellular activities resulting in over 40% higher proliferation of fibroblast after 21 days of incubation. It was achieved by imparting water resistance to the highly absorbent material and aiding in achieving a balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. This study clearly indicates the possible elimination of additional crosslinkers and multiple fabrication steps that can reduce the cost of scaffold production for skin tissue engineering applications while tailoring mechanical strength and degradation.

Graded or random – Effect of pore distribution in 3D titanium scaffolds on corrosion performance and response of hMSCs

Researchers agree that the ideal scaffold for tissue engineering should possess a 3D and highly porous structure, biocompatibility to encourage cell/tissue growth, suitable surface chemistry for cell attachment and differentiation, and mechanical properties that match those of the surrounding tissues. However, there is no consensus on the optimal pore distribution. In this study, we investigated the effect of pore distribution on corrosion resistance and performance of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) using titanium scaffolds fabricated by laser beam powder bed fusion (PBF-LB). We designed two scaffold architectures with the same porosities (i.e., 75 %) but different distribution of pores of three sizes (200, 500, and 700 μm). The pores were either grouped in three zones (graded, GRAD) or distributed randomly (random, RAND). Microfocus X-ray computed tomography revealed that the chemically polished scaffolds had the porosity of 69 ± 4 % (GRAD) and 71 ± 4 % (RAND), and that the GRAD architecture had the higher surface area (1580 ± 101 vs 991 ± 62 mm2) and the thinner struts (221 ± 37 vs 286 ± 14 μm). The electrochemical measurements demonstrated that the apparent corrosion rate of chemically polished GRAD scaffold decreased with the immersion time extension, while that for polished RAND was increased. The RAND architecture outperformed the GRAD one with respect to hMSC proliferation (over two times higher although the GRAD scaffolds had 85 % higher initial cell retention) and migration from a monolayer. Our findings demonstrate that the pore distribution affects the biological properties of the titanium scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Creation of Grooved Tissue Engineering Scaffolds from Architectured Multilayer Polymer Composites by a Tuneable One‐Step Degradation Process

AbstractThe surface properties of biomaterials interact directly with biological systems, influencing cellular responses, tissue integration, and biocompatibility. Surface topography plays a critical role in cardiac tissue engineering by affecting electrical conductivity, cardiomyocyte alignment, and contractile function. Current methods for controlling surface properties and topography in cardiac tissue engineering scaffolds are limited, expensive, and lack precision. This study introduces a low‐cost, one‐step degradation process to create scaffolds with well‐defined micro‐grooves from multilayered 3D printed poly(lactic acid)/thermoplastic polyurethane composites. The approach provides control over erosion rate and surface morphology, allowing easy tuning of scaffold topographical cues for tissue engineering applications. The findings reported in this study provide a library of easily tuneable scaffold topographical cues. A strong dependence of neonatal rat cardiomyocyte (NRCM) contact guidance with the multilayers' dimension and shape in partially degraded polylactic acid (PLA)/thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) samples is observed. NRCMs cultured on samples with a layer thickness of 13 ± 2 µm and depth of 4.7 ± 0.2 µm demonstrate the most regular contractions. Hence, the proposed fabrication scheme can be used to produce a new generation of biomaterials with excellent controllability determined by multilayer thickness, printing parameters, and degradation treatment duration.

Biomimetic structural design and performance study of 3D-printed graded minimal surface bone scaffolds with enhanced bioactivity

Bone bionics and structural engineering have played a vital role in bone regeneration, with artificial scaffolds generating widespread interest. However, the mechanical properties and bone regeneration potential of biomimetic structures remain unclear. Herein, biodegradable polymer composites based on poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)/poly(lactic acid) (PBAT/PLA) were 3D-printed into lattice structures as tissue engineering scaffolds. For structural design, graded diamond (D) minimal surfaces were proposed and designed to mimic the natural bone structure. The graded topologies were realized by designing gradient thickness either radially from center to edge or vertically from top to bottom. The mechanical performance of these graded samples displayed better load-carrying and energy absorption capacity than the uniform counterparts. No obvious damage was detected in the internal microstructure of the compressed samples using computed tomography. Subsequently, platelet-rich plasma (PRP), containing diverse cytokines, was loaded on the graded scaffolds. The PRP-loaded D-scaffold reported improved in vitro cell proliferation and osteoblast differentiation. Finally, femoral condyle defect repair results indicated that the PRP-loaded D-scaffold effectively promoted early-stage bone regeneration. Overall, this work provides insights into fabricating artificial scaffolds with bioactive factors and biomimetic lattice structures.

Dual-layered carbonated hydroxyapatite/polypyrrole: A novel strategy for bone fracture repair implants

This study presents the fabrication of a carbonate-doped hydroxyapatite/polypyrrole thin film on 304 stainless steel (CHA/PPY/304 SS) using a cyclic voltammetry electrochemical method to enhance bone fracture repair. The in-situ substitution mechanism was evaluated through estimated reaction energy, and the impact of surface modification on structural properties was examined using the Rietveld refinement method. Following the electrodeposition of CHA on PPY-coated 304 SS, a distinctive flower-like structure emerged, with average cluster and pore sizes of 3 ± 1 μm and 130 ± 10 nm, respectively. Rietveld refinement analysis revealed A-type carbonate substitution, indicated by an increase in the a parameter and a reduction in the c parameter compared to the standard. Subsequent deposition of the bilayer coating on 304 SS significantly improved adhesion strength to 10.7 ± 0.2 MPa, along with increased hydrophilicity and Vickers hardness. Notably, enhanced bioactivity was observed, evidenced by thickened nanoflake-like structures and the formation of island-like apatite deposits after immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF) for 7 days. This bilayer coating shows promise for surface modification of metallic implants and tissue engineering scaffolds.

Amniotic miracle: Investigating the unique development and applications of amniotic membrane in wound healing.

The perfect repair of damaged skin has always been a constant goal for scientists; however, the repair and reconstruction of skin is still a major problem and challenge in injury and burns medicine. Human amniotic membrane (hAM), with its good mechanical properties and anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial benefits, containing growth factors that promote wound healing, has evolved over the last few decades from simple skin sheets to high-tech dressings, such as being made into nanocomposites, hydrogels, powders, and electrostatically spun scaffolds. This paper aims to explore the historical development, applications, trends, and research hotspots of hAM in wound healing. We examined 2660 publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) from January 1, 1975 to July 12, 2023. Utilizing bibliometric methods, we employed VOSviewer, CiteSpace, and R-bibliometrix to characterize general information, identify development trends, and highlight research hotspots. Subsequently, we identified a collection of high-quality English articles focusing on the roles of human amniotic epithelial stem cells (hAESCs), human amniotic mesenchymal stem cells (hAMSCs), and amniotic membrane (AM) scaffolds in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Bibliometric analysis identified Udice-French Research Universities as the most productive affiliation and Tseng S.C.G. as the most prolific author. Keyword analysis, historical direct quotations network, and thematic analysis helped us review the historical and major themes in this field. Our examination included the knowledge structure, global status, trends, and research hotspots regarding the application of hAM in wound healing. Our findings indicate that contemporary research emphasizes the preparation and application of products derived from hAM. Notably, both hAM and the cells isolated from it - hADSCs and hAESCs are prominent and promising areas of research in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. This research delivers a comprehensive understanding of the knowledge frameworks, global dynamics, emerging patterns, and primary research foci in the realm of hAM applications for wound healing. The field is rapidly evolving, and our findings offer valuable insights for researchers. Future research outcomes are anticipated to be applied in clinical practice, enhancing methods for disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

Investigating mechanical properties of 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

Objective. Three-dimensional (3D) printed porous titanium scaffolds serve as a bone tissue engineering technology that offers a promising solution for addressing bone defects. The scaffold’s pore structure offers structural support and facilitates the proliferation of bone cells. Therefore, investigating the aperture and pore shape is of crucial for the development of 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds. Methods. Ti6Al4V scaffolds with the specified structure were fabricated using selective laser melting (SLM) technology. The scaffolds comprised fifteen cylindrical models measuring 20 mm in diameter and 20 mm in height. These models featured five scaffold shapes: imitation diamond-60°, imitation diamond-90°, imitation diamond-120°, regular tetrahedron and regular hexahedron. Each of these structural shapes was characterized by three different aperture sizes (400 μm, 600 μm and 800 μm). The porosity and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V scaffolds were examined. Results. The measured porosity of Ti6Al4V scaffolds varied between 56.50% and 95.28%. The porosity increased with the size of the aperture. The mechanical properties tests revealed that, for identical apertures, the compressive strength and torsional strength were influenced by the configuration of the unit structure. Furthermore, the positive and lateral compressive strength as well as torsional strength of various unit structures exhibited distinct advantages and disadvantages. Within a uniform unit structure shape, the compressive strength and torsional strength were found to be correlated with the size of apertures, indicating that larger apertures result in decreased compressive and torsional strength. Conclusion. The configuration of the aperture and the shape of the pore were identified as significant factors that influenced the compressive strength. The compressive strength of Ti6Al4V scaffolds with various unit structure shapes exhibited both advantages and disadvantages when subjected to positive, lateral, and torsional forces. The enlarged aperture augmented the scaffold’s porosity while diminishing its compressive and torsional strength.

In vitro biocompatibility and stem cell regenerative assessment of hollow hydroxyapatite spheres deposited wollastonite/Ca2P6O17/TCP/doped-wollastonite scaffolds

This research examines the biological behavior of multilayer ceramic-glass scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. The scaffolds consist of a high-strength core of wollastonite and P6 (Ca2P6O17), with a sequential coating of TCP and wollastonite doped with Na+, K+ and Mg2+ ions to confer bioactivity to the system. Two formulations were investigated: a magnesium-deficient one, which served as a microstructure control, and a magnesium-rich one in which hollow hydroxyapatite (HA) spheres precipitated after one week of immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF). These formulations are denoted as C-Scaffold and HA-Scaffold, respectively. Further exploration and comparison of the physiological effects of both scaffolds is necessary to fully understand their potential as drug release agents and associated therapeutic advantages. The study considered aspects such as protein adhesion, cell morphology, and the inflammatory response. The results showed that the HA-Scaffold had over 34 % more plasma protein adhesion compared to the C-Scaffold. Similarly, cell proliferation assays showed increased cell growth in both HFF-1 fibroblasts and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) treated with HA-Scaffold compared to C-Scaffold. This may be attributed to the higher protein adsorption, which acts as a facilitator for cell adhesion. Three-dimensional photography from computerized microtomography confirmed that the scaffolds have a similar morphology and porosity to the intricate structure of trabecular bone in the humeral head. The study shows that the scaffolds made of Wollastonite/Ca2P6O17/TCP/Doped-Wollastonite with HA hollow spheres are highly suitable for use in this bone segment due to their overall porosity of over 86 % and approximate mechanical strength of 1.6 MPa. These findings demonstrate the biocompatibility and enhanced biological properties of the scaffolds, making them an excellent material for bone tissue engineering.

Exploring Squalene's Impact on Epidermal Thickening and Collagen Production: Molecular Docking Insights

Background:: Aging is a progressive deterioration characterized by the gradual buildup of physiological alterations as time passes. The aging phenomenon encompasses various interconnected systems within the body, such as the skin, bones, cartilage, and hair. Objective and Methods: In this study, based on the appropriate properties of squalene, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and skin repair properties, a molecular docking study was designed for the drug squalene and proteins related to the dermis and epidermis pathway and collagen production (including Col3A1, Col1A2, FBN1, Decorin, and HAS2). Results and Discussion:: The docking results indicated that the interaction of squalene with hyaluronan synthetase 2 (HAS2) possessed the highest negative binding free energy value of -10.90 KCal/mol, followed by decorin with a value of -9.99 KCal/mol. Also, the inhibition constant values of squalene- HAS2 and squalene-decorin complexes were equal to 1.61 and 7.51 μM, respectively. It has been stated that decorin (as a small proteoglycan) and HAS2 are involved in controlling the assembly of skin fibrils and the biosynthesis of glucosaminoglycans, respectively. Conclusion:: Considering that proteoglycans and glucosaminoglycans play a role in the skin aging process, squalene may be used as an anti-aging agent to induce these pathways and for different purposes. Squalene may be used as a potential agent alone or in combination with other compounds in tissue engineering scaffolds for cosmetic, anti-aging, wound healing, and tissue repair applications.

Treatment of bone‐cartilage defects with dual‐layer tissue‐engineered scaffolds loaded with icariin and quercetin

AbstractOver the past few decades, significant research has been conducted on tissue‐engineered constructs for cartilage repair. However, there is a growing interest in addressing subchondral bone repair along with cartilage regeneration. This study focuses on a bilayer tissue engineering scaffold loaded with icariin (ICA) and quercetin (QU) for simultaneous treatment of knee joint cartilage and subchondral bone defects. The cytotoxicity of dual‐layer scaffolds loaded with ICA and QU was assessed through live/dead cell staining. Subsequently, these dual‐layer scaffolds loaded with ICA and QU were implanted into cartilage and subchondral bone defects in Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats. The repair effects were evaluated through macroscopic observation, computed tomography, and immunohistochemistry. After 12 weeks of implantation of dual‐layer scaffolds loaded with ICA and QU into the cartilage and bone defects of SD rats, better repair effects were observed in both cartilage and bone defects compared to the blank control group. We found that the dual‐layer tissue‐engineered scaffold loaded with ICA and QU had excellent biocompatibility and could effectively repair articular cartilage and subchondral bone injuries, showing promising prospects for clinical applications.

Biopolymer-Based Biomimetic Aerogel for Biomedical Applications.

Aerogels are lightweight and highly porous materials that have been found to have great potential in biomedical research because of some of their unique properties, such as their high surface area, tunable porosity, and biocompatibility. Researchers have been exploring ways to use aerogels to create biomimetic scaffolds inspired by natural extracellular matrices (ECMs) for various biomedical applications. Aerogel scaffolds can serve as three-dimensional (3D) templates for cell growth and tissue regeneration, promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Additionally, aerogel-based scaffolds have great potential in controlled drug delivery systems, where their high surface area and porosity enable the efficient loading and release of therapeutic agents. In this review, we discuss biopolymer-based biomimetic aerogel scaffolds for tissue engineering, drug delivery, and biosensors. Finally, we also discuss the potential directions in the development of aerogel-based biomimetic scaffolds.

Electrospun Gelatin Scaffolds with Incorporated Antibiotics for Skin Wound Healing.

Recent advances in regenerative medicine provide encouraging strategies to produce artificial skin substitutes. Gelatin scaffolds are successfully used as wound-dressing materials due to their superior properties, such as biocompatibility and the ability to mimic the extracellular matrix of the surrounding environment. In this study, five gelatin combination solutions were prepared and successfully electrospun using an electrospinning technique. After careful screening, the optimal concentration of the most promising combination was selected for further investigation. The obtained scaffolds were crosslinked with 25% glutaraldehyde vapor and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The incorporation of antibiotic agents such as ciprofloxacin hydrochloride and gentamicin sulfate into gelatin membranes improved the already existing antibacterial properties of antibiotic-free gelatin scaffolds against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Also, the outcomes from the in vivo model study revealed that skin regeneration was significantly accelerated with gelatin/ciprofloxacin scaffold treatment. Moreover, the gelatin nanofibers were found to strongly promote the neoangiogenic process in the in vivo chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane assay. Finally, the combination of gelatin's extracellular matrix and antibacterial agents in the scaffold suggests its potential for effective wound-healing treatments, emphasizing the importance of gelatin scaffolds in tissue engineering.

Recent Advances in 3D Printing of Smart Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering and Regeneration.

The repair and functional reconstruction of bone defects resulting from severe trauma, surgical resection, degenerative disease, and congenital malformation pose significant clinical challenges. Bone tissue engineering (BTE) holds immense potential in treating these severe bone defects, without incurring prevalent complications associated with conventional autologous or allogeneic bone grafts. Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology enables control over architectural structures at multiple length scales and has been extensively employed to process biomimetic scaffolds for BTE. In contrast to inert and functional bone grafts, next-generation smart scaffolds possess remarkable ability to mimic the dynamic nature of native extracellular matrix (ECM), thereby facilitating bone repair and regeneration. Additionally, they can generate tailored and controllable therapeutic effects, such as antibacterial or antitumor properties, in response to exogenous and/or endogenous stimuli. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of the progress of 3D-printed smart scaffolds for BTE applications. It begins with an introduction to bone physiology, followed by an overview of 3D printing technologies utilized for smart scaffolds. Notable advances in various stimuli-responsive strategies, therapeutic efficacy, and applications of 3D-printed smart scaffolds are discussed. Finally, the review highlights the existing challenges in the development and clinical implementation of smart scaffolds, as well as emerging technologies in this field. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Decellularized leaf-based biomaterial supports osteogenic differentiation of dental pulp mesenchymal stem cells.

Decellularized tissues are an attractive scaffolds for 3D tissue engineering. Decellularized animal tissues have certain limitations such as the availability of tissue, high costs and ethical concerns related to the use of animal sources. Plant-based tissue decellularized scaffolds could be a better option to overcome the problem. The leaves of different plants offer a unique opportunity for the development of tissue-specific scaffolds, depending on the reticulate or parallel veination. Herein, we decellularized spinach leaves and employed thesefor the propagation and osteogenic differentiation of dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). DPSCs were characterized by using mesenchymal stem cell surface markers CD90, CD105 and CD73 and CD34, CD45 and HLA-DR using flow cytometry. Spinach leaves were decellularized using ethanol, NaOH and HCL. Cytotoxicity of spinach leaf scaffolds were analysed by MTT assay. Decellularized spinach leaves supported dental pulp stem cell adhesion, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. Our data demonstrate that the decellularized spinach cellulose scaffolds can stimulate the growth, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of DPSCs. In this study, we showed the versatile nature of decellularized plant leaves as a biological scaffold and their potential for bone regeneration in vitro.

Methacrylated Carboxymethyl Chitosan Scaffold Containing Icariin-Loaded Short Fibers for Antibacterial, Hemostasis, and Bone Regeneration.

Bone defects typically result in bone nonunion, delayed or nonhealing, and localized dysfunction, and commonly used clinical treatments (i.e., autologous and allogeneic grafts) have limited results. The multifunctional bone tissue engineering scaffold provides a new treatment for the repair of bone defects. Herein, a three-dimensional porous composite scaffold with stable mechanical support, effective antibacterial and hemostasis properties, and the ability to promote the rapid repair of bone defects was synthesized using methacrylated carboxymethyl chitosan and icariin-loaded poly-l-lactide/gelatin short fibers (M-CMCS-SFs). Icariin-loaded SFs in the M-CMCS scaffold resulted in the sustained release of osteogenic agents, which was beneficial for mechanical reinforcement. Both the porous structure and the use of chitosan facilitate the effective absorption of blood and fluid exudates. Moreover, its superior antibacterial properties could prevent the occurrence of inflammation and infection. When cultured with bone mesenchymal stem cells, the composite scaffold showed a promotion in osteogenic differentiation. Taken together, such a multifunctional composite scaffold showed comprehensive performance in antibacterial, hemostasis, and bone regeneration, thus holding promising potential in the repair of bone defects and related medical treatments.

From Nature to Technology: Exploring the Potential of Plant-Based Materials and Modified Plants in Biomimetics, Bionics, and Green Innovations.

This review explores the extensive applications of plants in areas of biomimetics and bioinspiration, highlighting their role in developing sustainable solutions across various fields such as medicine, materials science, and environmental technology. Plants not only serve essential ecological functions but also provide a rich source of inspiration for innovations in green nanotechnology, biomedicine, and architecture. In the past decade, the focus has shifted towards utilizing plant-based and vegetal waste materials in creating eco-friendly and cost-effective materials with remarkable properties. These materials are employed in making advancements in drug delivery, environmental remediation, and the production of renewable energy. Specifically, the review discusses the use of (nano)bionic plants capable of detecting explosives and environmental contaminants, underscoring their potential in improving quality of life and even in lifesaving applications. The work also refers to the architectural inspirations drawn from the plant world to develop novel design concepts that are both functional and aesthetic. It elaborates on how engineered plants and vegetal waste have been transformed into value-added materials through innovative applications, especially highlighting their roles in wastewater treatment and as electronic components. Moreover, the integration of plants in the synthesis of biocompatible materials for medical applications such as tissue engineering scaffolds and artificial muscles demonstrates their versatility and capacity to replace more traditional synthetic materials, aligning with global sustainability goals. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current and potential uses of living plants in technological advancements, advocating for a deeper exploration of vegetal materials to address pressing environmental and technological challenges.