Savory Flavor Research Articles

Protective Role of Rockect Seed (Eruca sativa) Extract against Monosodium Glutamate-induced Hepato-renal Toxicity in Male Rats

Background and Objective: Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is identified as an Accent that is used in the food industry as a flavour enhancer with an umami taste that intensifies the meaty, savoury flavour of food. The present study aimed at evaluating the protective and ameliorative role of rocket seeds extract against monosodium glutamate-induced hepatic renal toxicity and oxidative stress in the male rat.
 Materials and Methods: A total of 60 male adult albino rats were equally divided into six groups (G1, Control; G2, rocket seeds (RS); G3, ACCENT or MSG; G4, Co- treated (RS+MSG); G5, Post- treated (MSG+RS); G6, Self-treated MSG). 
 Results: Current results revealed that; a significant increase in serum ALT, AST, ALP, AFP, Urea, Creatinine, potassium ions, chloride ions, cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL, and LDL levels in MSG as compared to control and RS groups. In contrast; a significant decrease in serum albumin, total proteins, catalase, GSH and SOD in liver and kidney homogenates in MSG as compared to control and RS groups. Co- or post-treatment of MSG with rocket seeds improved this change in liver and kidney functions, with best results for co-treatment than post and self-treatment.
 Conclusion: These findings suggested that the misuse of monosodium glutamate may contribute to continuous hepatic and renal damage. This shows that the desired dose of monosodium glutamate can safely be used with grapes seed in improving hepatic and renal damage in monosodium glutamate in young rats.

A review on the status of post-harvest loss in vegetable crop and their management options

Today, one of the main global challenges is how to ensure food security for a world growing population whilst ensuring long-term sustainable development. Increasing emphasis on higher value farm products to meet the changing diets of urban consumers has focused renewed attention on post-harvest systems, while unacceptably high losses due to poor handling and lack of appropriate infrastructure have reduced economic benefits to small producers. Post-harvest activities are an integral part of the food production system which mainly includes vegetables which can be defined as any edible and usually succulent, portion of plant or part of a plant other than a sweet fruit or seed with savory flavor. These edible portions include roots, tubers, stems, buds, bulbs, leaves, flowers, seeds and fruits. Vegetables are diverse in their morphological structure, nutritional composition and general physiology. By nature, all vegetables have a high moisture content which renders them to be highly perishable such, that if not handled properly, a high-value nutritious product can deteriorate and decay in a matter of days or even hours (Kader, 2002). In some areas of the country, root crops particularly potatoes and sweet potatoes are used as staple food for considerable portion of the population. The expression "post-harvest losses" means a measurable quantitative and qualitative loss in a given product.in the other Post-harvest activities include cooling, curing, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transport and the market phase. Post-harvest losses can occur as a loss in edibility, nutritional quality, caloric value, or consumer acceptability. The factors contributing to these losses includes; the initial quality of the crop, mechanical injury, temperature, humidity, handling given to the crop and storage atmosphere. In view of these factors, a good sanitation management in all pre and post-harvest operations in vegetable crops will help in eliminating sources of infection and reducing levels of contamination.

The Length-Weight Relationship ofMetapenaeopsis mogiensisin North Aceh Waters, Indonesia

Shrimp as one of potential commodity which hasahigh protein and savory flavor of meat is highly favored by the people in the country and abroad. The catch activity of theMetapenaeopsis mogiensisshrimp by the fisherman in Pusong Lama, Lhoksemawe has long been a livelihood. However, if the shrimp catching activity was carried out continuously without any restrictions, it can threaten the sustainability of the shrimp. The purpose of this study was to determine the lenght-weight relationship of shrimp caught in the waters of Aceh Utara, Indonesia. This research was expected to provide additional information on the existence ofMetapenaeus mogiensisshrimp and future sustainable resource management for farmers. The research method used was a simple random withdrawal method by taking shrimp samples randomly from a basket of fishermen's catch in one sail. A total of 10% shrimp samples of the total catch of fishermen was taken, then length was measured and weighed. Sampling was carried out in July2019 at TPI Pusong lama, Lhoksemawe. The length of carapace of male shrimp ranges from 14.8 mm to 22.2 mm and females 13.9 mm to 22.1 mm.The weight of male shrimp ranges from 2.17 grams to 6.73 grams and the weight of female shrimp ranges from 2.01 grams to 5.83 grams. Growth patterns found in both males and femalesshowed allometric negatives and the ratio of sex was 1.5: 1 (male:female).

Comparisons of Beef Fatty Acid and Amino Acid Characteristics between Jeju Black Cattle, Hanwoo, and Wagyu Breeds.

Jeju black cattle are known as one of Korea’s traditional cattle. However, Hanwoo is more well-known to Korean meat consumers as representative beef cattle. Despite the popularity of these two breeds, comparison of the nutritional characteristics between Jeju black cattle and Hanwoo have not been studied. Here, we compared the fatty acid and amino acid characteristics between two Korean traditional cattle and Wagyu breeds. A total of 62 cattle were used in this study. The Jeju black cattle beef had significantly higher unsaturated fatty acids than Hanwoo (p<0.05). Savory fatty acids, including oleic acid were also higher than in Hanwoo cattle (p<0.05). The negative flavor fatty acids, such as palmitic acid were significantly lower than in Hanwoo (p<0.001). On the other hand, linoleic acid which imparts a negative flavor was higher than Hanwoo (p<0.05). Amino acids, including alanine and glutamine, usually representative of the umami taste were present in significantly higher proportions in Jeju black cattle (p<0.05). In addition, bitter tasting amino acids, including valine, leucine, isoleucine, and methionine were lower in Jeju black cattle beef than in Hanwoo (p<0.05, p<0.001, p<0.001, and p<0.001 each). Taken together, our results suggest that Jeju black cattle beef had higher savory flavor and umami taste which affected consumers preference for the meat.

Influence of flavors and stabilizers used on the preferences and properties of aerated tvarog curd cheese [pdf

BACKGROUND The Polish market for tvarog (curd cheese)-based products is growing continuously. The as- sortment of these goods include products with different textures, different additives and different flavours. In developing a successful food product one should ensure consumers are sufficiently involved during the development stages. Consumer-led food product development should be a standard procedure. The study aimed to develop a new variants of aerated tvarog spreads. METHODS The research was divided into the following steps: evaluation of consumer pref- erences (questionnaire); production of aerated tvarog cheeses (different flavor variants); physico-chemical evaluation of new products (composition, TPA test); evaluation of new products by consumers (questionnaire with a 5-point scale); sensory evaluation of new products by an expert panel (2 types of questionnaire). RESULTS Sweet tvarog spreads were characterized by a higher degree of aeration than cheeses with a savory flavor. The savory variants had a semi-liquid consistency after aeration. This could result from the addition of salt (6%) to flavor preparation. The products stabilized by gelatine showed a higher degree of aeration than the ones with starch. The savory cheeses showed lower hardness than sweet cheeses (P < 0.05). Both consum- ers and experts gave higher marks to the sweet variants of manufactured tvarog cheeses. CONCLUSIONS The addition of salt to savory flavor preparation probably affected the texture of these products, which was semi-liquid. Texture plays a very important role in the development of new products and affects consumers’ preferences for the product.

Influence of flavors and stabilizers used on the preferences and properties of aerated tvarog curd cheese.

The Polish market for tvarog (curd cheese)-based products is growing continuously. The as- sortment of these goods include products with different textures, different additives and different flavours. In developing a successful food product one should ensure consumers are sufficiently involved during the development stages. Consumer-led food product development should be a standard procedure. The study aimed to develop a new variants of aerated tvarog spreads. The research was divided into the following steps: evaluation of consumer pref- erences (questionnaire); production of aerated tvarog cheeses (different flavor variants); physico-chemical evaluation of new products (composition, TPA test); evaluation of new products by consumers (questionnaire with a 5-point scale); sensory evaluation of new products by an expert panel (2 types of questionnaire). Sweet tvarog spreads were characterized by a higher degree of aeration than cheeses with a savory flavor. The savory variants had a semi-liquid consistency after aeration. This could result from the addition of salt (6%) to flavor preparation. The products stabilized by gelatine showed a higher degree of aeration than the ones with starch. The savory cheeses showed lower hardness than sweet cheeses (P < 0.05). Both consum- ers and experts gave higher marks to the sweet variants of manufactured tvarog cheeses. The addition of salt to savory flavor preparation probably affected the texture of these products, which was semi-liquid. Texture plays a very important role in the development of new products and affects consumers&rsquo; preferences for the product.

ANTI-ALLERGY POTENTIAL OF PETIS EXTRACT ON IMMUNOGLOBULIN E PRODUCTION BY U266 CELLS

Petis, one of Indonesia’s traditional condiment, is most often made from shrimp and shrimp waste. Thiscondiment becomes popular as a savory flavor additive which is mainly produced in East Java, Indonesia.Despite the unique taste and good nutritional content, any particular study regarding its health benefit inIndonesia has not thoroughly evaluated yet. Therefore, the objective of this research was to explore petispotential towards anti-allergy property in vitro. The potential property was evaluated by determining theconcentration of Immunoglobulin E (IgE) by U266 cells treated with petis extract using ELISA. In result,petis extract could significantly suppressed IgE production up to 2-fold at its highest concentrationcompared to control. Further investigation to extrapolate petis functional bioactive compound wasconducted by treating petis extract with heat and enzyme (proteinase K). Result showed that heat- andenzyme-treated petis extract still have the ability to suppress IgE production by U266 cells. Thus, it couldbe assumed that the functional bioactive compound was a heat-stable non-protein compound. Thesepreliminary findings could conclude that petis extract has a potential anti-allergy property which gives anadded value towards petis product in Indonesia

Genetic Resource of Muscovy Duck (Cairina moschata): Profile and Potential Production as Meat Producer

Muscovy duck is a type of waterfowl that has a relatively better growth and percentage compared to ducks. Duck meat has high-quality because of its low fat and savory flavor. Muscovy duck is relatively resistant to the disease and is able to use low-quality feed, but has the disadvantage of low egg production. The development of Muscovy duck as a producer of meat can be done through two approaches, namely the long-term and short-term. The long-term approach is carried out by selecting Muscovy duck which has high growth rate and high meet quality. The selection can be done in two ways, namely directly on the nature of growth and the quality of meat, and indirectly by choosing a marker of growth (morphology, biochemistry or diversity of DNA/ RNA). Short-term selection can be done by bringing in superior Muscovy duck from the outside to be developed by farmers and crossing male Muscovy duck with the layer Indian Runner ducks to produce Serati ducks.

Late pruning impacts on chemical and sensory attributes of Shiraz wine

Background and Aims Warming has two major effects on the wine industry: compressing harvest duration, thus stressing the current capacity of wineries to process more fruit in a shorter time, and compromising fruit composition and wine style. Late pruning can effectively delay vine development and contribute to decompressing harvest, but its impact on wine is unknown. Our aim was to measure the effects of late pruning on wine chemical and sensory attributes. Methods and Results We compared wines made from Shiraz vines pruned in winter (Control), and in two late pruning stages, when Controls reached budburst and 2–3 leaves in two vintages. Late pruning consistently increased wine anthocyanin, tannin, pigmented tannin and colour density and altered the wine's sensory profiles over two vintages. In 2014, colour intensity, fruit aroma, fruit flavours and body were more intense in wine made from late pruning treatments. In 2015, wine made from late pruning treatments showed more intense savoury flavours with a dryer palate and a smoother texture tannin (roughing sub-quality). The colour improvement was associated with cooler temperature 1 week after veraison in the late-pruned vines. Conclusions Late pruning consistently improved wine chemical composition and altered sensory profiles of Shiraz under Barossa Valley conditions. Significance of the Study Late pruning is a cost-effective tool to decompress harvest, with neutral effects on yield and positive effects on wine chemical attributes with enhancement of fruit and colour intensity perception in an extended vintage (2014), and smoother tannin texture with dryer perception in a short and compressed vintage (2015).

Highlight: A tasteful conversation with atypical mitochondria at atypical synapses

Atypical mitochondria produce ATP used as a neurotransmitter by type II taste cells to transduce sweet, bitter, or savory flavors.

ANALISIS JENIS KELAMIN DAN KEBIASAAN JAJAN DENGAN KEJADIAN ISPA PADA ANAK DI TK DHARMA WANITA PERSATUAN UNIT SIDOKLUMPUK SIDOARJO

Many snacks are less qualified of health so they threaten children's health. This condition reflects the children become accustomed to eating bad snacks in the school environment. The purpose of this study was to determine the sex and the habit of eating snacks with upper respiratory tract infection occurrence on children in Dharma Wanita Persatuan Unit Kindergarten, Sidoklumpuk, Sidoarjo. The design of the study used an analytic-cross sectional approach. The population was the entire students in Dharma Wanita Persatuan Unit Kindergarten, Sidoklumpuk, Sidoarjo as 28 students, the sample which was 26 respondents was taken by using a simple random sampling technique. The independent variable was sex, snacks habit and the dependent variable was the occurrence of upper respiratory tract infection. The instruments used checklist and questionnaire. The data were analyzed by using spearmen rank test with a significance level (α = 0,05).The result of the study was the majority of the respondents (57.7%) was female and the majority of the respondents (53.8%) had a habit of eating bad snacks and almost half of the respondents (46.2%) was rare occurrence of URTI. Spearman Rank test result obtained that ρ = 0,020, there was no correlation of sex with the upper respiratory tract infection occurrence in Dharma Wanita Persatuan Unit Kindergarten, Sidoklumpuk, Sidoarjo. Furthermore, it was obtained that 0,010 meant that there was correlation between the habit of eating snacks and the occurrence of URTI in Dharma Wanita Persatuan Kindergarten, Sidoklumpuk, Sidoarjo. The conclusion of the study was females most often consume foods which have striking colors, attractive appearances, sweet and savory flavors that are around the school so they will occur URTI. It is advised that parents encourage their children not to buy snacks and make the children become accustomed to having breakfast first.

반응향을 적용한 간장박 가수분해물로부터 Savory Flavor의 생성

반응향을 적용한 간장박 가수분해물로부터 Savory Flavor의 생성

Frutarom makes it a dozen

The acquisitive Israeli flavors and fragrances maker Frutarom Industries rounded out 2017 with the purchase of Brazil’s Bremil Indústria and Poland’s Fabryka Substancji Zapachowych Pollena-Aroma, its 11th and 12th acquisitions of the year. Frutarom paid $31 million for a 51% interest in the Brazilian firm, a maker of savory flavors that has annual sales of about $47 million. It paid nearly $9 millionfor the Polish company, a maker of ingredients for aromatherapy and cosmetics with annual sales of $5 million.

시판 생막걸리의 이화학 성분과 관능적 특성 분석

This study analyzed the physicochemical characteristics and sensory properties of makgeolli. Fifteen samples of 4 award winning makgeolli and 11 samples of non-award winning makgeolli in a Korea liquors contest were examined. Physicochemical analysis revealed a significant differences in the alcohol content, reducing sugar concentration, color difference, and volatile compounds between the award winning and non-award winning makgeolli (p<0.05). The award winning makgeolli was related to the high contents of alcohol and reducing sugar, bright color, and low contents of ethyl myristate. A total of 24 terms (appearance 2, odor 10, flavor and taste 8, and texture 4) were expressed in terms of makgeolli. Regarding the sensory property, the sweet, raspberry, pear, and yogurt smell were positively related to the award winning makgeolli. In addition, nuruk, savory smell, and savory flavor were positively related to the non-award winning makgeolli. A study of association between the volatile compounds and odor attribute revealed ethyl lactate to have a positive correlation with the raspberry smell (r=0.840) and pear smell (r=0.723) in the award winning makgeolli (p<0.01). The characteristics of makgeolli preferred by consumers are strongly related to the sweet taste and smell, bright color, and fruit flavor.

Tallow Beef Flavor: Effect of Processing Conditions and Ingredients on 3‐Chloropropane‐1, 2‐Diol Esters Generation, and Sensory Characteristics

The effect of processing conditions (heating temperature, reaction time, and pH) and ingredients of beef flavor system (including enzymatic tallow hydrolysate, DL‐methionine, L‐cysteine, glucose, and D‐xylose) on 3‐monochloro‐1, 2‐propanediol (3‐MCPD) esters concentration, and sensory characteristics of beef flavors are investigated. The results indicates that DL‐methionine and L‐cysteine had similar effects on the content of 3‐MCPD esters, promoting their formation at low concentration, whereas, reducing them when added at high concentration. 3‐MCPD esters concentration increased with increasing enzymatic tallow hydrolysate and D‐xylose concentration. However, the addition of glucose has no significant effect on 3‐MCPD esters concentration. Considering 3‐MCPD esters concentration and sensory characteristics, the optimal addition of flavor precursors is finally selected as: Enzymatically hydrolyzed tallow (10%), L‐cysteine (1.2%), DL‐methionine (1.2%), glucose (1%), and D‐xylose (0.5%). In addition, 3‐MCPD esters concentration is also strongly dependent on heating temperature, reaction time, and pH. In conclusion, beef flavor is prepared using the optimal concentrations of flavor precursors and heated at 110 °C with initial pH 7.0 for 100 min.Practical Application: This study provides a promising way of controlling the formation of 3‐MCPD esters without changing the flavor quality of savory flavors. It promotes the food safety control technology of savory flavoring from passive defense to active forewarning. Also, it provides theoretical guidance and technical support for the sustainable and healthy development of savory flavoring industry.In this study the effect of processing conditions and ingredients on 3‐MCPD esters concentration and sensory characteristics are evaluated. It can provide references for the reduction 3‐MCPD esters without changing its quality during beef flavor processing.

Vegetable breeders turn to chefs for flavor boost

Last August, four chefs sat around a table in a Madison, WI, restaurant, each with small samples of 10 tomato varieties. With nary a word spoken, the chefs tasted each morsel, then rated the flavor along dimensions represented by axes drawn on paper. Tomatoes high in sweetness and acidity fell on the right. Those high in umami, a savory flavor, were grouped in the bottom left. Fig. 1. Chefs with expert palates are helping plant breeders revolutionize the flavor of produce. The owners of the Oregon-based, organic seed company, Adaptive Seeds—Andrew Still ( Second from Right ) and Sarah Kleeger ( Left )—walk their fields with Oregon State University agricultural researcher Lane Selman ( Right ) and local chef Timothy Wastell as the team develops new varieties of kale. Image courtesy of Shawn Linehan (photographer). Tomato flights aren’t the latest food trend, and Julie Dawson, the woman overseeing this event, was not administering a culinary exam. Dawson, a plant breeder at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, is one of a small but growing number of breeders who are harnessing the power of the chef’s palate to produce more flavorful vegetables. Most of the tomatoes the chefs tasted that day were varieties in the making. The chefs’ input helped determine which varieties hit the seed catalogues, which were bred with others to improve flavor, and which were dropped from production altogether. “Chefs can articulate what tastes good and what needs to be fixed in ways that others can’t,” says Dawson. Breeder–chef partnerships vary in approach from quantitative analyses to informal conversation, but all are centered on the basic idea that when breeders and chefs unite they can revolutionize the quality of produce. People have crossed plants and selected the most productive, disease-resistant, attractive, and flavorful offspring for millennia. But as we came to rely on food grown at a distance, …

Changes in Sensory, Physicochemical and Microbiological Properties of Ronto During Fermentation

Abstract Background and Objective: Ronto is a traditional Indonesian fermented shrimp product; however, there are very few reports on how its properties change during fermentation. The aim of this study was to study the changes in sensory, physicochemical and microbiological properties of ronto during fermentation. Materials and Methods: Shrimp (Acetes japonicus) was mixed with salt and rice to give a mixture that was 11.5% salt and 20% rice. The mixture was put into plastic bottles and incubated at room temperature for 18 days. Samples were taken after every 2 days and sensory, physicochemical and microbiological properties were analyzed. Results: It was found that the fermented shrimp developed a sour, savory flavor and bright pink color after 8 days of fermentation, both of which became stronger after 12 days. After 14 days of fermentation, the texture of the shrimp gradually became that of a porridge-like paste. The acidity of the fermented shrimp increased during fermentation, after 12 days of fermentation, the pH had decreased from 8.3-4.8. The total volatile bases increased from 25-150 mg N/100 g over 18 days of fermentation. Lactic acid, proteolytic and amylolytic bacteria were involved in the fermentation process. The concentrations of these three bacteria increased during the early phases of fermentation and decreased in the later phases. Conclusion: Ronto fermentation ended after 14 days when the color of the fermented material became bright pink and when it had developed a strong, sour and savory flavor. That product had a lightness (53.11), a redness (11.72), a yellowness (15.68), a pH (4.8) and the texture of porridge-like paste and was relatively low in total volatile bases. Key words: Ronto, fermented shrimp, sensory, physicochemical, microbiology

Reducing the Oil Content of Fried Noodles through Forming a Rough and Coarse Gluten Network

Instant noodles have been spreading worldwide. The frying process not only enables high productivity but also provides easy-to-eat property and favorable roast and savory flavor. Although a reduction in the amount of oil in fried noodles is required occasionally, the relationship between oil content and the gluten network in fried noodles has been little studied. The present study aimed to clarify how differences in the density of the gluten network structure can affect the oil content of the fried noodle. In conventional methods for producing fried noodles, the noodle sheet is made from dough using a rolling-press followed by repeated compressions to gradually reduce the thickness to obtain the final rolled noodle sheet. Using electron microscopy, a dense and well-dispersed gluten network was observed in the conventional fried noodle. In contrast, a coarse and roughly-dispersed gluten network structure was observed in noodle sheets formed by extrusion followed by an immediate rapid compression using a rolling-press. This process reduced the oil content of the fried noodles by approximately two-thirds compared with that of the conventionally processed fried noodles with dense gluten. Therefore, this improved process of noodle sheet formation and rolling-press can suppress the formation of the gluten network and so substantially reduce the oil content of these fried noodles made from coarse gluten.

Taste, Enjoyment, and Desire of Flavors Change After Sleeve Gastrectomy-Short Term Results.

Laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy (LSG) incidence continues to increase worldwide because of its efficacy and low surgical risks. This study aimed to investigate satisfaction with eating and the change in taste perception, desire, and enjoyment of flavor changes and associations with extent of percentage excess weight loss (%excess weight loss (EWL)) post-LSG. One hundred six participants completed an online questionnaire 4 to 6weeks as well as 6 to 8months post-LSG bariatric surgery. The questionnaire included study-specific questions about changes in taste, desire, and enjoyment of eight major categories of flavor, as well as the Suter Quality of Alimentation Questionnaire to measure satisfaction with eating. The majority of participants reported a post-surgery increase in the intensity of the flavor of sweet (60, 55%) and fatty (57, 70%) at both time points, respectively. Participants also reported a decreased enjoyment for sweet (77, 61%) and fatty (77, 83%) flavors and decreased desire for fatty (83, 84%) and sweet (82, 68%) flavors at both time periods. This study found an increase in intensity of flavor of all eight taste modalities and a decrease in desire and enjoyment of all taste modalities except salty and savory flavors following surgery. Participants reported an increased acuity of spicy flavors and fatty tastes over time, and the desire and enjoyment of sweet, bitter, and metallic flavors increased over time. Changes in savory enjoyment over a 6- to 8-month period post-LSG were weakly associated with extent of % EWL at 6months post-surgery. The participants reported average (40, 37%), good (33, 42%), and excellent (15, 11%) satisfaction with eating at both time points. This preliminary study indicates that subjective changes in taste, desire, and enjoyment of flavors of eight taste modalities are very common after LSG.

Biochemical Characterization and Structure Determination of the Class C TAS1R Subfamily of Chemosensory Receptors

The taste 1 receptors (TAS1Rs) are a poorly understood subfamily of the class C G protein coupled-receptors (GPCRs) that are responsible for the detection of sweet and savory flavors. There are three TAS1Rs (TAS1R1, TAS1R2, and TAS1R3) and they each include a venus fly trap domain (VFD), cysteine rich domain (CRD), and a seven transmembrane domain (7TM). While no structures are available and limited modeling has been done, several studies have shown that TAS1Rs form obligate heterodimers for proper function, signifying an elegant and complex structural organization for normal function. In addition to taste sensory detection, the TAS1Rs are expressed throughout the human body and play roles in metabolism and innate immunity. To determine the structure of TAS1Rs, we are utilizing the pipeline developed by the GPCR Network used to solve 19 of the 29 published GPCR structures including the 7TM domain of the class C mGluR1. This pipeline consists of large scale expression of stabilized TAS1R constructs for biochemical and biophysical characterization to measure yield and stability, crystallization, and structure determination of the subfamily for the first time. To generate high yielding and stable protein we introduce truncations, point mutations known to increase expression, and fusion partners that aid in stability. Structure determination of the TAS1Rs will greatly improve our understanding of the molecular recognition of this sub family, and provide a platform for developing tools to better understand their diverse role in physiology. This structural information will also be critical for the development of novel therapies for obesity, diabetes, and innate immune disorders. Studies supported in part by U54 GM094618.