Saussurea Research Articles

Correction to: “Isolation of Steroidal Esters from Seeds of Saussurea involucrata,”

Correction to: “Isolation of Steroidal Esters from Seeds of Saussurea involucrata,”

TRACE ELEMENTS MAY BE RESPONSIBLE FOR MEDICINAL EFFECTS OF SAUSSUREA LANICEPS, SAUSSUREA INVOLUCRATE, LYCIUM BARBARUM AND LYCIUM RUTHENICUM

Background: The pharmacodynamics of Saussurea laniceps, Saussurea involucrata, Lycium barbarum and Lycium
 ruthenicum have been researched, and trace elements have been considered as the essential elements, but little attention
 has been paid to the trace elements of the herbal medicine. We would like to report on the content of copper (Cu),
 manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se) levels in the four herbal medicines.
 Materials and Methods: A total of 20 whole plant materials were collected of each species in China. The content of
 Cu, Mn, Fe and Zn in the dried aerial parts was estimated by the standard atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The
 level of Se was detected using hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry.
 Results: The mean concentrations of Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn and Se in S. laniceps were 7.758±0.924μg/g, 201.3±16.24μg/g,
 222.7±35.10μg/g, 18.48±2.913μg/g and 1.42±0.16μg/g, respectively; S. involucrata were 19.56±2.20μg/g,
 88.75±8.53μg/g, 812.7±126.9μg/g, 34.85±3.81μg/g and 1.04±0.05μg/g, respectively; L. barbarum were
 10.83±0.26μg/g, 9.598±0.32μg/g, 55.65±3.83μg/g, 11.92±0.27μg/g and 11.84±0.59μg/kg, respectively; L. ruthenicum
 were 12.67±0.39μg/g, 13.78±1.13μg/g, 98.04±5.03μg/g, 14.46±1.27μg/g and 35.12±2.34μg/kg, respectively.
 Conclusion: This study provided the trace elements content of Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn and Se in the four herbal medicines. The
 trace elements are maybe other functional compounds for medicinal effects. Deep relationship between
 pharmacological and trace elements contents, especially its mechanism of action should be future research.

Acacetin from Traditionally Used Saussurea involucrata Kar. et Kir. Suppressed Adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes and Attenuated Lipid Accumulation in Obese Mice.

Acacetin, a flavone that can be isolated from the Saussurea involucrata plant, has anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory properties that ameliorate airway hyperresponsiveness in asthmatic mice. This study investigated whether acacetin has anti-adipogenic effects in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and whether it regulates the inflammatory response in adipocytes and macrophages. It also investigated whether acacetin ameliorates lipid accumulation in high-fat diet- (HFD) induced obese mice. Differentiated 3T3-L1 cells were treated with acacetin. The glycerol levels in the culture medium were measured, and the expression of proteins and genes involved in adipogenesis and lipolysis were assayed by Western blot and real-time PCR, respectively. Inflammatory cytokine signaling pathway activity was assessed in macrophages that were treated with acacetin and cultured with differentiated medium from 3T3-L1 cells. Intraperitoneal injections of acacetin were administered to HFD-induced obese mice twice a week for 10 weeks. Acacetin significantly increased the levels of glycerol in the culture medium and significantly inhibited lipid accumulation in adipocytes. Acacetin reduced the expression of adipogenesis-related transcription factors, including the expression of the CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein; it also increased sirtuin 1 expression and AMPK phosphorylation in adipocytes. In macrophages cultured with differentiated media from 3T3-L1 adipocytes, acacetin reduced the levels of inflammatory mediators and the activity of the mitogen-activated protein kinase and NF-κB pathways. In obese mice, acacetin reduced both body weight and visceral adipose tissue weight. These results demonstrate that acacetin inhibited adipogenesis in adipocytes and in obese mice. Acacetin also reduced the inflammatory response of macrophages that were stimulated with differentiated media from 3T3-L1 cells.

High genetic diversity in an endangered medicinal plant, Saussurea involucrata (Saussurea, Asteraceae), in western Tianshan Mountains, China

Saussurea involucrata (Asteraceae) is a medicinal and second-degree national priority endangered plant that is mainly distributed in the high latitude region of the western Tianshan Mountains. The population is fragmented and isolated, and extensive human impact merits a suitable and specific conservation strategy, which can be compiled based on the genetic diversity, population structure, and demographic history. Phylogeographic studies were conducted on a total of five natural populations and 150 individuals were sampled. Data from three cpDNA intergenic spacer regions (trnL-F, matK, and ndhF-rpl32) and nrDNA ITS sequences showed that twelve haplotypes in cpDNA and five haplotypes in nrDNA indicated high genetic diversity among populations sampled (H T = 0.820 and 0.756) and within populations sampled (H S = 0.792 and 0.721). Additionally, the high genetic diversity did not mirror genetic structure in either cpDNA (F ST = 0.03153, G ST > N ST, p < 0.05) or nrDNA (F ST = 0.03666, meaningless G ST and N ST). Two groups (north and south) were determined for a SAMOVA analysis. Based on this analysis, the demographic history was conducted with a Bayesian Skyline Plot and Isolation with Migration analysis, which showed sustainable and stable extension without a marked bottleneck. Divergence time was indicated at c. 6.25 Mya (90%HPD: 15.30–0.22 Mya) in the Miocene, which is consistent with the formation of the Kelasu section of Tianshan. The southern populations in the Bayanbulak and Gonglu regions require additional attention and transplanting would be an effective way to restore rare cpDNA haplotypes, increase effective population size, and migration rate. Our results suggested that in situ conservation of S. involucrata in western Tianshan should be the main strategy for protection and recovery of the species.

De Novo Transcriptome Sequencing and the Hypothetical Cold Response Mode of Saussurea involucrata in Extreme Cold Environments.

Saussurea involucrata grows in high mountain areas covered by snow throughout the year. The temperature of this habitat can change drastically in one day. To gain a better understanding of the cold response signaling pathways and molecular metabolic reactions involved in cold stress tolerance, genome-wide transcriptional analyses were performed using RNA-Seq technologies. A total of 199,758 transcripts were assembled, producing 138,540 unigenes with 46.8 Gb clean data. Overall, 184,416 (92.32%) transcripts were successfully annotated. The 365 transcription factors identified (292 unigenes) belonged to 49 transcription factor families associated with cold stress responses. A total of 343 transcripts on the signal transduction (132 upregulated and 212 downregulated in at least any one of the conditions) were strongly affected by cold temperature, such as the CBL-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase (CIPKs), receptor-like protein kinases, and protein kinases. The circadian rhythm pathway was activated by cold adaptation, which was necessary to endure the severe temperature changes within a day. There were 346 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) related to transport, of which 138 were upregulated and 22 were downregulated in at least any one of the conditions. Under cold stress conditions, transcriptional regulation, molecular transport, and signal transduction were involved in the adaptation to low temperature in S. involucrata. These findings contribute to our understanding of the adaptation of plants to harsh environments and the survival traits of S. involucrata. In addition, the present study provides insight into the molecular mechanisms of chilling and freezing tolerance.

Medicinal Plants Harvesting in Wolong National Nature Reserve

Abstract: A combination of sample surveys and questionnaires were used to investigate the harvesting of wild medicinal plants (WMP) in Wolong National Nature Reserve (WNNR) from August 2014 to July 2015. These surveys showed that up to 20 families and 45 species of WMP were harvested in WNNR. Gastrodia elata, Paris polyphylla, Fritillaria thun-bergli, Rheum officinale, Rhodiola rosea, Saussurea medusa, Notopterygium root, Radix Ginseng, Buddha's palm were harvested intensely. The harvesting, which occurred mainly in autumn and winter (from June to October) in the test area, buffer area and core area, was located mostly in the residential and crop production areas of Wolong Town and Gengda Town, and in the timberline, alpine meadows and scree areas of Dengshenggou Ravine and Balangshan Mountain (specifically in Dengshenggou, Tangfang, Tizigou Ravine, Weijiagou Ravine and Reshuihe River areas). Among all the harvesters, 58% came from inside the WNNR, and 42% came from outside the WNNR; 87% were male, and 13...

Correlation between Reproductive Allocation and Elevation of Saussurea graminea in Eastern Margin of the Tibetan Plateau

Correlation between Reproductive Allocation and Elevation of Saussurea graminea in Eastern Margin of the Tibetan Plateau

Cloning and characterization of SiDHN, a novel dehydrin gene from Saussurea involucrata Kar. et Kir. that enhances cold and drought tolerance in tobacco

Saussurea involucrata Kar. et Kir. is a hardy, dicotyledonous plant featured by strong tolerance to severe stress conditions. In a previous study, we created a cDNA library to characterize genetic factors associated with the cold acclimation response of S. involucrata. The full-length cDNA of one dehydrin-like gene, SiDHN, was obtained by RT-PCR and the SiDHN gene was further characterized in this study. The full-length SiDHN cDNA consists of 703 base pairs (bp) with a 333bp open reading frame encoding a protein comprising 111 amino acid residues. The alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence showed that SiDHN protein shared 36% identity with one homolog in Helianthus annuus. To evaluate its biological functions, 35S:SiDHN recombinant plasmid was introduced into tobacco using Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the resistance of transgenic plants to freezing and drought stresses were analyzed. Compared with the wild-type, transgenic tobacco plants showed greater resistance to freezing and drought stresses. In this study, we provided evidence that SiDHN can enhance plant cold and drought resistance, suggesting that SiDHN could be potentially used to genetically improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses.

Leaf Spot on Snow Lotus (Saussurea involucrata) Caused by Ramularia carthami in China

Leaf Spot on Snow Lotus (<i>Saussurea involucrata</i>) Caused by <i>Ramularia carthami</i> in China

ANALISIS NILAI GIZI HASIL FERMENTASI LARUTAN GULA AREN MENGGUNAKAN TERATAI SALJU (Saussurea involucrata)

The nutrition level of fermented palm sugar solution using snow lotus (Saussurea involucrata) has been analyzed. It is necessary to determine it before this product is consumed by public. Palm sugar solution had been fermented using snow lotus (Saussurea involucrata) for 72 hour. The palm sugar solution before and after fermentation was analyzed its nutrition level such as protein, carbohydrates, vitamin C and alcohol level (methanol and ethanol) based on MUI and BPOM. After fermentation the level of protein, carbohydrates, vitamin C with consecutive is 0.557%; 1.81 mg/kg and 5.71 mg/kg. The level of protein content increased by 55 % and 42 % for carbohydrates, but the level of vitamin C decreased 16% when it compared to palm sugar solution before fermentation. Methanol wasn’t detected in fermented product after 72 hour, while ethanol is still below the threshold set by the MUI and Badan POM is 0.8%, so it is safe for consumption. Keywords : Fermented, palm sugar solution.

Therapeutic effects of Saussurea involucrate injection in severe acute pancreatitis in rats

Objective To investigate the therapeutic effects of Saussurea involucrate injection in severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) in rats. Methods A total of 80 healthy Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into eight groups: SAP group (three hours、48 hours), Saussurea involucrate treated group (three hours、48 hours), ulinastatin control group (three hours、48 hours) and sham operation group (three hours、48 hours), 10 rats in each group. After modeling, the rats of SAP group were regularly feeded and the rats of other three group were treated with Saussurea involucrate injection (1.04 mL/kg) intraperitoneal injection, ulinastatin 10 000 U/L tail vein injection, and saline femoral vein injection, respectively and injected every 12 hours. At three hours and 48 hours after treated, blood and pancreatic tissue samples were obtained.The mortality rate, serum amylase level and pathological changes of the pancreas of each group were observed. Serum tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10 levels were detected by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The content of malondialdehyde (MDA) in pancreatic tissues was determined by chemical colorimetry. The level of TNF-α mRNA, IL-6 mRNA and IL-10 mRNA in pancreatic tissues were measured with reverse trascription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The activity of nuclear factor kappa B p65 (NF-κB p65) in the pancreatic tissue was tested by immunohistochemistry. Single factor analysis of variance was used to compare multiple groups, and the least significant difference (LSD) method was used in the multiple comparisons between groups. Fisher′s exact probability method was performed for rates comparison. Results At 48 hours, there was no statistically significant difference in mortality rate among Saussurea involucrate treated group, SAP group and ulinastatin groups (all P>0.05). At 48 hours, the histopathology score (8.13±0.64), levels of serum amylase ((2 597.0±214.0) U/L), TNF-α ((254.4±11.6) ng/L), IL-6 ((441.4±14.6) ng/L), levels of pancreatic tissues MDA ((311.0±10.6) mmol/L), TNF-α mRNA(2.04±0.08), IL-6 mRNA(1.77±0.04)and activity of NF-κB p65 ((25.90±2.90)%) of Saussurea involucrate treated group were all lower than those of SAP group (11.40±0.89, (4 780.0±101.0) U/L, (396.0±7.4) ng/L, (664.4±7.6) ng/L, (418.0±10.6) mmol/L, 2.94±0.03, 2.63±0.08 and (51.60±5.27)%; however level of serum IL-10 ((133.5±6.9) ng/L vs (95.1±5.2) ng/L) and IL-10 mRNA of the pancreatic tissue (1.38±0.06 vs 0.85±0.03) significantly increased (F=253.07、441.63、489.40、2 465.00、196.65、477.89、562.79、131.70、560.18、570.04, all P 0.05). Conclusion Saussurea involucrate injection can eliminate oxygen free radicals and prevent to xidation, inhibit NF-κB activation, regulate synthesis and release of cytokines, and alleviate pancreatic injury in SAP rats, but it can not decrease mortality. Key words: Saussurea involucrate injection; Ulinastatin; Severe acute pancreatitis

New Role of Hispidulin in Lipid Metabolism: PPARα Activator.

Hispidulin is a naturally occurring flavonoid isolated from a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, Saussurea involucrata. In this study, the regulating role of hispidulin on the mRNA expression level of enzymes involved in lipid metabolism was examined in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, the in vivo lipid-modulating effect of hispidulin was compared with that of fenofibrate, a classical PPARα agonist. Our results in present study demonstrated that hispidulin can directly bind to and activate PPARα as an agonist and thus modulate the downstream lipid-metabolizing genes. Moreover, hispidulin could attenuate dyslipidemia in high fat diet induced dyslipidemia rat model. Although further studies are needed, this study provided evidence for the potential use of hispidulin in dyslipidemia management.

Morphological and genetic diversity and seed germination behavior of a snow lotus (Saussurea involucrata, Asteraceae) from the Mongolian Altay Mountains, Western Mongolia

Different conservation measures including domestication approaches are needed to preserve rare and extensively used plant species and to satisfy future market demands. Snow lotus (a common name used for a number of high altitude species in central Asia) species in Mongolia are important medicinal plants, mostly endangered at the regional level due to the extensive use for medicinal purposes and naturally limited distribution ranges. In order to develop effective conservation and cultivation approaches we studied the morphological and genetic diversity as well as the seed germination behavior of three populations of Saussurea involucrata in the Altay Mountains of Western Mongolia. Plant height and leaf length were measured on 41–53 randomly selected individuals in each population. Enhancement of seed germination was studied using either mechanical or chemical scarification with potassium nitrate and gibberellic acid. Genetic diversity within and among three populations of the species was analyzed using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms. Plants in three populations differed in height and leaf length (P < 0.001). Plant size tended to be negatively correlated with habitat altitude. Seed germination rate was low and increased with seed soaking in gibberellic acid. However, the response of seeds to different treatments was rather population-specific. Most treatments did not significantly affect mean days to germination and the ratio of shoot to root dry weight of 2-weeks old seedlings. The level of genetic diversity in the studied populations was lower than the average value for other long-lived perennial herbs. Analysis of molecular variance revealed a high differentiation within populations (92 % of total variation) indicating sufficient gene flow among populations.

Achene morphology ofSaussureaspecies (Asteraceae, Cardueae) in Korea and its systematic implications

Achene size and shape, surface sculpturing, and pericarp and testa wall structure of 23 Korean Saussurea spp. were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and light microscopy to evaluate the infrageneric relationships and assess their systematic significance. Achene size categories and thickness of the testa epidermis were distinguished using biometric measurements. Four basic types of surface pattern were observed: (1) lineate; (2) striate; (3) reticulate; and (4) colliculate. Saussurea rorinsanensis was found to have some unique achene characteristics, such as a fusiform achene, uniform pappus, presence of epidermal hairs and tangentially elongated, narrow testa epidermal cells. The characteristic achene features for species were found to be achene size and shape, hilum position, surface sculpture, pappus composition, morphology of the pericarp wall and thickness of the testa epidermis. Based on 16 morphological and achene characters, a cladistic analysis resolved three well-supported clades, with S. eriophylla as the first-branching taxon. Saussurea pulchella and S. japonica, both belonging to Saussurea subgenus Theodorea, were distant from each other in the 50% majority rule consensus tree and the character distribution cladogram. This cladistic analysis of achene morphology and anatomy should be regarded as giving us a tentative picture of the phylogenetics of Saussurea, and this study may serve as a reference for future hypotheses and studies on the characterization and classification of Saussurea spp. in Korea.

Review on Saussurea laniceps, a potent medicinal plant known as “snow lotus”: botany, phytochemistry and bioactivities

Saussurea laniceps (Compositae), commonly known as “cotton-headed snow lotus”, is the most effective “snow lotus” used in both Tibetan and Chinese folk medicine. It performs outstandingly in treating rheumatoid arthritis, which mainly is credited for its anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive efficacy, as explained by modern pharmacological studies. Extracts of the herb, including umbelliferone and scopoletin, exert such effects in various in vivo and in vitro studies. Besides the two chemicals above, more than 100 organic compounds have been found in S. laniceps, and 58 of them are presented here in molecular structure, including cynaropicrin, mokko lactone, apigenin, acacetin, and luteolin, all contributing to different bioactivities, such as analgesic, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-microbial and anticancer effects. We provide a natural product library of S. laniceps, giving inspirations for structure modification and bioactivity-oriented screening, enabling sustainable use of this valuable plant. The ethnomedical applications and pharmacological discoveries are compared and crosslinked, revealing modern evidence for traditional usages. Despite that S. laniceps is a representative “snow lotus” herb, its material medica records and clinical applications are complicated; there is considerable confusion with the different snow lotuses in the academic community and on the market. This review also aims at clearing such confusion, and improving quality assessment and control of the herb. To better utilize the valuable plant, further comparison among the chemical constitutions, pharmacological activities and therapeutic mechanisms of different snow lotuses are needed.

Anti-rheumatoid arthritic effects of Saussurea involucrata on type II collagen-induced arthritis in rats.

Saussurea involucrata (SI) has long been used under the herbal name "snow lotus" for treatment of inflammation and pain-related diseases in traditional Chinese medicine. The present study aimed to evaluate the pharmacological effects of SI on collagen II (CII)-induced arthritis in rats. Rats with collagen II (CII)-induced arthritis were orally administered SI (420 mg kg(-1)) for 40 consecutive days. Histopathological examination indicated that SI alleviates infiltration of inflammatory cells and synovial hyperplasia and slows joint destruction. SI intervention reduced the serum levels of RF, COMP, CRP and anti-CII IgG. Results also showed that SI is a potential therapeutic agent for alleviating the severity of the disease based on the reduced arthritic index. It was concluded that SI can ameliorate inflammation and joint destruction in CIA rats.

The complete chloroplast genome of Tianshan Snow Lotus (Saussurea involucrata), a famous traditional Chinese medicinal plant of the family Asteraceae

abtractWe decoded the complete chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) sequence of the Tianshan Snow Lotus (Saussurea involucrata), a famous traditional Chinese medicinal plant of the family Asteraceae, by using next-generation sequencing technology. The genome consists of 152 490 bp containing a pair of inverted repeats (IRs) of 25 202 bp, which was separated by a large single-copy region and a small single-copy region of 83 446 bp and 18 639 bp, respectively. The genic regions account for 57.7% of whole cpDNA, and the GC content of the cpDNA was 37.7%. The S. involucrata cpDNA encodes 114 unigenes (82 protein-coding genes, 4 rRNA genes, and 28 tRNA genes). There are eight protein-coding genes (atpF, ndhA, ndhB, rpl2, rpoC1, rps16, clpP, and ycf3) and five tRNA genes (trnA-UGC, trnI-GAU, trnK-UUU, trnL-UAA, and trnV-UAC) containing introns. A phylogenetic analysis of the 11 complete cpDNA from Asteracease showed that S. involucrata is closely related to Centaurea diffusa (Diffuse Knapweed). The complete cpDNA of S. involucrata provides essential and important DNA molecular data for further phylogenetic and evolutionary analysis for Asteraceae.

Identification of a putative stearoyl acyl-carrier-protein desaturase gene from Saussurea involucrata

Saussurea involucrata Kar. et Kir. tolerates severe abiotic stresses including cold, and the level of membrane fatty acid desaturation is associated with its cold acclimation. We discovered and characterized a full-length cDNA of stearoyl acyl-carrier-protein desaturase (sikSACPD) which encodes a protein consisted of 396 amino acids. A sequence alignment of the SikSACPD protein showed that it shares 91 and 86 % identity with the SACPDs of Carthamus tinctorius and Helianthus annuus, respectively. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR showed that the expression of sikSACPD increased in S. involucrata leaves as the temperature decreased from 20 to −10 °C. Agrobacterium tumefaciens was used to transform fatty acid biosynthesis 2 (FAB2):SikSACPD and FAB2:FAB2 constructs into tobacco to investigate resistance to a freezing stress and fatty acid composition of the transgenic plants. The FAB2:SikSACPD transgenic plants showed a slightly more resistance to the freezing stress than the FAB2:FAB2 transgenic plants and the wild-type. The proportion of oleic acid (C18:1) in the leaves of SikSACPD transgenic tobacco increased from approximately 5 to 20 % compared with the leaves of non-transgenic tobacco when both were exposed to cold stress treatments. This study demonstrates that the SikSACPD transgene, when expressed in tobacco, conferred a higher cold tolerance in comparison with that observed in non-transgenic tobacco. Thus, this gene may be a candidate for enhancing cold tolerance in other crop plants.

In vitro culture and production of syringin and rutin in Saussurea involucrata (Kar. et Kir.) - an endangered medicinal plant.

BackgroundSaussurea involucrata (Kar. et Kir.) commonly known as ‘snow lotus’ or ‘Xue Lian’ is an important plant in the traditional Chinese system of medicine. The plant contains flavonoids such as syringin and rutin. These compounds have been reported to be anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory and dilate blood vessels, lower blood pressure, prevent cardiovascular diseases, enhance immunity, and act as anti-aging, anti-cancer, and anti-fatigue agents. The species has become endangered due to the excessive collection of S. involucrata plants in the wild, slower plant growth and ecological destruction of natural habitats. There is a severe shortage of plant material, while the market demand is ever increasing. Hence, it is very important to apply tissue culture technique for plant propagation and production of the bioactive compounds of this species.ResultsMultiple shoot induction and proliferation in shoot base explants derived from in vitro raised seedlings of S. involucrata was achieved on 3/4 strength of Murashige and Skoog’s (MS) basal medium (MSBM) supplemented with 1.0 mg/L−1 BA and 1.5 mg/L−1 NAA. Rooting was induced in 100 % shoots cultured on 1/2X MSBM supplemented with 1.0 mg/L−1 IBA for one week and then transfer to auxin free medium. The plantlets could be acclimatized successfully by sachet technique and established in the greenhouse. Maximum callus induction and proliferation in leaf segments was achieved on 1/2X MSBM supplemented with 0.5 mg/L−1 BA, 0.5 mg/L−1 NAA, 0.4 % gelrite and on incubation at 20 °C. Container closures had an influence on the quality and quantity of callus and production of the active compounds. The HPLC analysis showed much higher syringin content in in vitro shoots and callus as compared to commercially available market crude drug.ConclusionThe present study describes an in vitro culture protocol of Saussurea involucrata. The bioactive compounds, syringin and rutin could be produced through tissue culture technique without sacrificing the endangered Saussurea involucrata plants in the wild.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40529-015-0092-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Saussurea medusa, source of the medicinal herb snow lotus: a review of its botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology

Saussurea medusa Maxim. is a plant source of the traditional medicine known as “snow lotus” which has been recorded in many ethnopharmacy books, including: Herbal Communications, Flora Tibet, National Herbal Compendium, and Crystal beads Materia Medica, This plant is also a medicinal plant source of Gaode-Subage, a Mongolian folk medicine. The review summarizes the traditional uses and current knowledge concerning the botany, phytochemistry, pharmacological effects, toxicology studies and clinical applications of S. medusa. These could guide the priorities and direction of the future research. Information on S. medusa was gathered from e-literature found on the internet using SCI Finder, Google Scholar, Web of science, PubMed, CNKI, and the Wanfang database, and from printed material (books, theses, etc.) found in libraries. Additionally, information was also obtained from some local herb gatherers, herbal peddler and herbalist. More than 70 chemical compounds have been isolated, including apigenin, quercetin, rutin, arctigenin, saussureoside A, and saussureoside B. Modern pharmacological studies have found that S. medusa has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-fungal, anti-tumor, anti-anoxia, anti-oxidation, and anti-fatigue effects. This plant also benefits the uterus, cardiovascular system, intestines, tracheal smooth muscle, and immune system. S. medusa is an important traditional herbal medicine with a broad spectrum of therapeutic efficacies. It has the reputation of non-toxic. Due to the low source of the original plant, experiment of cell culture of S. medusa can improve the output of the medicine. Further studies can lead to the development of new drugs and therapeutics from this medical plant for various diseases.