Satureja Species Research Articles

Allelopathic potential of essential oils from four Satureja spp.

Potential damage to human health and to the environment from herbicides is regarded today as a real problem. It has resulted in an increased interest in alternative strategies leading to the development of biodegradable compounds. In this study, allelopathic effects of four essential oils (EOs) of Satureja spp., S. khuzestanica, S. bachtiarica, S. rechingeri and S. spicigera, were investigated against tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) and rye (Secale cereale). The concentrations 0, 100, 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 μl l− 1 of the EOs were tested in vitro against seeds, and their effect on germination, root and shoot length, fresh and dry weight, proline content and relative membrane permeability was determined. EOs from S. khuzestanica and S. rechingeri showed high inhibitory effect against rye and tomato seeds, respectively, at 400 μl l− 1, whereas S. bachtiarica showed the least inhibitory effect on the tested plants. S. spicigera and S. bachtiarica, which significantly decreased rye germination and growth at high concentrations, stimulated the growth at lower concentrations compared with the control treatment. The main components of the examined EOs were carvacrol and thymol. Findings of this study showed that EOs from the tested Satureja species have allelopathic effects on tomato and rye plants and have potential as natural herbicides.

Antihyperglycemic effect of carvacrol in combination with rosiglitazone in high-fat diet-induced type 2 diabetic C57BL/6J mice

Thiazolidinediones constitute a family of antidiabetic drugs, and rosiglitasone (RSG) has an extensive usage in treating the complications of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Carvacrol (CVL), a monoterpenic phenol that occurs in many essential oils of the family Labiatae including Origanum, Satureja, Thymbra, Thymus, and Corydothymus species, possess a wide variety of pharmacological properties including antioxidant potential. We hypothesized that carvacrol in combination with RSG would prove beneficial to ameliorate the dysregulated carbohydrate metabolism in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced type 2 diabetic C57BL/6J mice. Mice were divided into six groups and fed HFD, for 10 weeks. CVL (20 mg/kg BW) and RSG (4 mg/kg BW) were administered post-orally, daily for 35 days. HFD mice showed an elevation in plasma glucose, insulin, glycosylated hemoglobin and a decrease in hemoglobin. The activities of carbohydrate metabolic enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase increased whereas glucokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activities decreased in the liver of HFD mice. The activities of hepatic marker enzymes such as aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase increased in HFD mice. Combination of CVL and RSG prevented the above changes toward normalcy. Histopathological analysis of H&E stained pancreas was also in agreement with the biochemical findings. These major findings provide evidence that combination of CVL with RSG has better antidiabetic properties.

Antifungal activities of essential oils from some Iranian medicinal plants against various post harvest moulds

The potential antifungal effects of the essential oils and components of Thymus vulgaris L.,Thymus migricus Klokov and Desj-Shost., Thymus koschyanus Boiss., Mentha spicata L.,Mentha pulegium L., and Satureja mutica Fisch and C.A. (Lamiaceae) were investigated against four food poisoning and plant pathogens. The essential oils were obtained by hydro distillation of dried plant materials and their composition was determined by gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer (GC-MS) in previous studies. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the oils and their components were determined by dilution assays. Thymus species showed very strong antifungal activities. Culture Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) media with all oil-enrichment resulted in significant (P≤0.01) reduction on subsequent colony development of Rhizopus oryzae (up to 28%) at 100 ppm; Botrytis cinerea (up to 100%); Penicillium expansum (up to 69%) at 100 ppm and Rhizopus stolonifer (up to 56%) at 100 ppm. Among studied fungi, B. cinerea and P. expansum were the most sensitive pathogens treated with MICs of 100 and 150 ppm, respectively. Differences between high MICs and MFCs of M. spicata and T. vulgaris and low MICs and MFCs of T. koschyanus and T. migricus inhibiting the growth and colony development of tested fungi correlated with simultaneous high concentration of thymol and carvacrol in species of T. koschyanus, T. migricus, M. pulegium and S. mutica. It is concluded that essential oils of Thymus, Satureja and Mentha species possess great antifungal potential and could be used as natural preservatives and fungicides. Key words: Antifungal activity, plant pathogens, essential oils, fungal growth, Lamiaceae family.

Toxicity of essential oil of Satureja khuzistanica: In vitro cytotoxicity and anti-microbial activity

In nature, essential oils play an important role in the protection of the plants by exerting anti-bacterial, -viral, -fungal, -oxidative, -genotoxic, and free radical scavenging properties, as well as in some cases acting as insecticides. Several Satureja species are used in traditional medicine due to recognized therapeutic properties, namely anti-microbial and cytotoxic activities. The purpose of the present work was to determine the biologic activity of the essential oil of S. khuzistanica Jamzad (Lamiaceae) against four human cancer cell lines, as well as its inhibitory effects against a wide array (i.e. n = 11) of pathogenic bacteria and fungi. The essential oil was isolated by hydro-distillation and analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. Carvacrol (92.87%) and limonene (1.2%) were found to be the main components of the isolated oil. Anti-microbial activity of the essential oil was assessed using a disc diffusion method; an MTT cytotoxicity assay was employed to test effects of the oil on each cancer cell line. The oil exhibited considerable anti-microbial activity against the majority of the tested bacteria and fungi. The test oil also significantly reduced cell viability of Vero, SW480, MCF7, and JET 3 cells in a dose-dependent manner, with the IC50 values calculated for each cell type being, respectively, 31.2, 62.5, 125, and 125 μg/ml. Based on the findings, it is concluded that the essential oil of S. khuzistanica and its major constituents have a potential for further use in anti-bacterial and anti-cancer applications, pending far more extensive testing of toxicities in normal (i.e. primary) cells.

A Modern Approach to the Authentication and Quality Assessment of Thyme Using UV Spectroscopy and Chemometric Analysis

Recently, the fields of chemometrics and multivariate analysis have been widely implemented in the quality control of herbal drugs to produce precise results, which is crucial in the field of medicine. Thyme represents an essential medicinal herb that is constantly adulterated due to its resemblance to many other plants with similar organoleptic properties. To establish a simple model for the quality assessment of Thymus species using UV spectroscopy together with known chemometric techniques. The success of this model may also serve as a technique for the quality control of other herbal drugs. The model was constructed using 30 samples of authenticated Thymus vulgaris and challenged with 20 samples of different botanical origins. The methanolic extracts of all samples were assessed using UV spectroscopy together with chemometric techniques: principal component analysis (PCA), soft independent modeling of class analogy (SIMCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). The model was able to discriminate T. vulgaris from other Thymus, Satureja, Origanum, Plectranthus and Eriocephalus species, all traded in the Egyptian market as different types of thyme. The model was also able to classify closely related species in clusters using PCA and HCA. The model was finally used to classify 12 commercial thyme varieties into clusters of species incorporated in the model as thyme or non-thyme. The model constructed is highly recommended as a simple and efficient method for distinguishing T. vulgaris from other related species as well as the classification of marketed herbs as thyme or non-thyme.

In vitroAntifungal activity of essential oils fromTymbra,Origanum,Saturejaspecies and some pure compounds on the fish pathogenic fungus,Saprolegnia parasitica

In the present study, the chemical composition and antifungal activity of the essential oils of the three Lamiaceae species, black tyme (Thymbra spicata L.), oregano (Origanum onites L.) and savory (Satureja tymbra L.) against Saprolegnia parasitica Coker strains (3) were evaluated. The composition of oils was analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The major constituent of the oils was carvacrol (82.68% in Thymbra spicata, 82.24% in Origanum onites and 52.38% in Satureja tymbra). The antifungal activity of essential oils was determined by a tube dilution and disc diffusion method. All essential oils inhibited fungal strains at concentration of 100 μL mL−1. The essential oil of O. onites and T. spicata was the most active (MIC 10 and 50 μL mL−1, respectively). Thymol did not show inhibiting activity. The essential oils exhibited stronger inhibition than pure carvacrol. Essential oil derived from Tymbra, Origanum and Satureja species has the potential to be used as health control of rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) against S. parasitica infection. This study describes the antifungal activity of three essential oils for developing alternative and native control methods against Saprolegniasis.

In vitro cytotoxic and antimicrobial activity of essential oil from Satureja sahendica

Several Satureja species are used in traditional medicine due to recognized therapeutic properties, namely antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities. In order to explore the potential for commercial purposes and industrial utilization of its essentiail oil, scientific studies addressing the chemical composition, the action mechanism and the toxicological safety are needed. The purpose of the present work was to determine the cytotoxic activity of the essential oil of S. sahendica Bornm. (Lamiaceae) on four human cancer cell lines as well as its inhibitory effects in vitro against 11 pathogenic bacteria and fungi. The essential oil was isolated by hydrodistillation and analyzed by the combination of capillary GC-FID and GC-MS. Thymol (40%), γ-terpinene (28%), and ρ-cymene (22%) were the main components of the essential oil. Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil according to the disk diffusion method and minimum inhibitory concentration value and the in vitro toxicological study based on the MTT cytotoxicity assay was studied. Essential oil significantly reduced cell viability of MCF7, Vero, SW480 and JET 3 cells in a dose-dependent manner with IC50 value 15.6, 15.6, 125, and 250 µg mL−1, respectively. Also, the essential oil exhibited considerable antimicrobial activity on tested bacteria and fungi. In conclusion, essential oil of S. sahendica and its major constitutes may be of interest in antibacterial and anticancer applications.

Identification of potential sources of thymoquinone and related compounds in Asteraceae, Cupressaceae, Lamiaceae, and Ranunculaceae families

Abstract In this study, forty-seven plant species belonging to seven families were analysed by GC and GC-MS for the contents of pharmacologically effective quinones: dithymoquinone (DTQ), thymohydroquinone (THQ), and thymoquinone (TQ). The results showed that detectable amounts (≥1 mg kg−1) of at least one of these compounds have been found in three species of both Monarda (M. didyma, M. media, and M. menthifolia) and Thymus (T. pulegioides, T. serpyllum, and T. vulgaris) genera, two Satureja (S. hortensis and S. montana) species, and in single representatives of Eupatorium (E. cannabinum), Juniperus (J. communis), and Nigella (N. sativa) genera. The maximum contents of THQ and TQ were found in M. media aerial parts and M. didyma inflorescences (2674 and 3564 mg kg−1 of dried weight, respectively) in amounts significantly exceeding their maximum contents in N. sativa seeds (THQ = 530 mg kg−1 and TQ = 1881 mg kg−1), which are generally considered as the main natural source of both of these compounds. As a conclusion, M. didyma (bergamot) and M. media (purple bergamot) can be recommended as new prospective natural sources of THQ and TQ for pharmaceutical or food industries.

Composition and in vitro antibacterial activity of essential oils from four Satureja species growing in Iran

The composition and in vitro antibacterial activity of essential oils from four Satureja species (S. bachtiarica, S. khuzistanica, S. mutica and S. rechingeri) growing in Iran were determined. According to the results of GC–FID and GC–MS analysis, all oil samples were principally composed of phenolic constituents (carvacrol and/or thymol) with the percentages ranging from 41.2% (S. bachtiarica) to 77.7% (S. rechingeri). Determining antibacterial activities by the disc diffusion method against two Gram-positive and two Gram-negative bacteria revealed the maximum activity against Bacillus cereus with a range of minimum inhibitory concentration values from 0.25 to 1 mg mL−1 and minimum bactericidal concentration values from 0.5 to 1 mg mL−1. The oils of S. khuzistanica and S. rechingeri appeared to be more active in general than those of other species. In conclusion, the essential oils of studied Satureja species have the potential to be considered as alternatives for synthetic food preservatives.

Is There a Place for Satureja species in Complementary and Alternative Medicine? Animals Studies Done but Clinical Trials Remain

Is There a Place for Satureja species in Complementary and Alternative Medicine? Animals Studies Done but Clinical Trials Remain

Influence of Ecological Factors on Carvacrol Content of Satureja khuzestanica Jamzad

The genus Satureja constitutes about 200 species of herbs and shrubs, widely distributed in Mediterranean area, Asia and boreal America. Fourteen species of Satureja are growing wild in western and northern parts of Iran. Satureja khuzestanica Jamzad is an endemic plant that is widely distributed in the southern and western parts of Iran. It is famous for its medical uses as analgesic and antiseptic in folk medicine. This work was conducted to study ecological factors that could affect carvacrol content and plant height of ten populations of Satureja khuzestanica from Iran (Khuzestan and Lurestan Provinces). The essential oils were obtained by hydro-distillation and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results showed that plant height varied significantly between populations of Satureja khuzestanica. Also, our investigation showed that there is a positive and linear relationship between content of carvacrol as major component with latitude.

Chemical composition and anti-fungal activities of three essential oils from Satureja spp. on four post-harvest pathogens of strawberry fruit

SummaryPost-harvest diseases cause considerable losses to harvested fruits and vegetables during transportation and storage. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-fungal potential of the oils from three Iranian Satureja species (S. hortensis, S. khuzistanica, and S. spicigera) against four post-harvest pathogenic fungi (Rhizopus stolonifer, Penicillium digitatum, Aspergillus niger, and Botrytis cinerea) which can reduce the shelf-life of strawberry fruit. The chemical compositions of the plant oils were determined by capillary gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Anti-fungal assays were carried out in vitro using potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the essential oils were determined and compared with each other. Measurable anti-fungal potential was found for three of the essential oils analysed. Satureja spp. oils showed promising inhibitory effects, even at low concentrations (300 µl l–1), against B. cinerea and R. stolonifer, whereas they had anti-fungal effects against P. digitatum at 600 µl l–1. The essential oils of S. spicigera and S. khuzistanica showed fungistatic effect against A. niger, with a MIC of 300 µl l–1. Although all three essential oils showed fungicidal effects against B. cinerea, R. stolonifer, and P. digitatum, no fungicidal effect was observed against A. niger, even at high concentrations. All three essential oils were tested in vivo and exhibited inhibitory activities against all four pathogens. S. khuzistanica oil gave the best results and so may be used to decrease, significantly, the incidence of post-harvest diseases in strawberry fruit.

Chemical composition of the essential oil of two Iranian Satureja species (S. edmondi and S. isophylla)

Satureja genus presents 12 aromatic species in Iran, eight of which are endemic. Because of the several usages of Satureja species or their oils in different industries, we were interested to study the oil content and composition of Iranian Satureja species. In this research, the essential oil content and composition of two endemic species (S. edmondi and S. isophylla) were investigated. Essential oils from aerial parts of Satureja edmondi Briquet and Satureja isophylla Rech. f. were obtained by hydro-distillation. The oils were analyzed by capillary gas chromatography, using flame ionization and mass spectrometric detection. The components were identified with their mass spectrum and retention indices. Thirty components were identified in the oil of S. edmondi with p-cymene (61.1%), gamma-terpinene (9.6%), thymol (5.0%) and alpha-terpineol (4.8%) as main constituents. Fifty-six compounds were identified in the oil of S. isophylla with alpha-eudesmol (11.3%), beta-eudesmol (9.6%), camphor (7.1%), beta-caryophyllene (6.1%), gamma-eudesmol (5.8%) and geranial (5.5%) as main components. The results showed different composition of the essential oils of these Satureja species. The oil content and composition of these Satureja species were studied for the first time. We have studied some of the other Satureja species oils previously. This study showed the sharp differences between the oils of these two species with other Satureja species that will be presented compeletly.

Trypanocidal activity of some endemic species of Satureja in Iran

Trypanosoma cruzi, a hemoflagellate protozoan (family Trypanosomatidae), is the ethiological agent of Chagas disease, which is affecting 16-18 million people, with more than 100 million exposed to the risk of infection. Higher plants are a potential source of new drugs to improve the treatment of Chagase disease. Until recently, Rutacea, Meliaceae, Simaroubaceae and Burceraceae families have been studied in order to find trypanocidal compounds. In additon, some species of Dracocephalum (Labiatae) have been found as the main sources of active terpenoids and flavonoids against epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi Aerial parts of the plants (flowers, leaves and stems) were dried carefully and reduced to powder, followed by extraction three times with diethyl ether by maceration at room temperature for 72 hours. This process was repeated on the marc with acetone, methanol and water, successively, and then the solvents evaporated under reduced pressure to obtain the concentrated extracts. All extracts were dried under vacuum for 24 h in order to give dried powder of extracts. Epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi (Tulahuen strain) were kept in GIT medium (Wako) supplemented with hemin (12.4 µM, Wako). The epimastigotes in GIT medium (10 µL) were incubated with a test sample dissolved in EtOH (5 µL) and autoclaved saline (185 µL). All samples were incubated at 27°C for 24 hours. The movement of epimastigotes was observed under a microscope. We assumed that immobilized organisms were died. In this study, the in vitro trypanocidal activity of some fractions for Satureja mutica and S. macrantha belonging to the Labiatae family was evaluated. Acetone fractions of both plants were the most active fraction (MLC=12.5 ?g/ml) against the epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi, the ethiological agent of Chagas disease. The trypanocidal activity seems to be decreased by fractionation using MeOH and water as solvents. The results obtained from trypanocidal assay revealed that satureja is a promising source of active anti-trypanosoma compounds. In addition, the phytochemical studies showed that the active fractions were rich of terpenoids and flavonoids.

Comparative study of rosmarinic acid content in Satureja species

Satureja species are used in traditional medicine and phytotherapy mostly in gastrointestinal disorders. This genus is rich in essential oil and phenolic compounds. Rosmarinic acid which is found in this genus exhibits important biological activities such as antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti HIV properties [1–3]. In this investigation, rosmarinic acid content of different Satureja species which grow in various parts of Iran was determined by using HPLC method. Aerial parts of six Satureja species named S. hortensis, S. khuzestanica, S. bakhtiarica, S. atropa, S. mutica and S. macranta were collected, identified, dried and milled. 200mg of each plant was extracted by using water, methanol and 2- propranol in a ratio of 80:10:10 as solvent. O-phosphoric acid (0.085%) was added to the solvent subsequently. The HPLC was performed by using C18 column. The mobile phase was the same as extraction solvent with gradient mode. UV spectra were collected across the range of 200–900nm, extracting 330nm for the chromatograms. The results showed that the HPLC method could separate rosmarinic acid from other components of the plants efficiently. By using above-mentioned method, rosmarinic acid content inSatureja species was found 0.12–1.90% in dried plants. The highest amount of the rosmarinic acid was found in S. mutica, whereas S. khuzestanica contained the lowest content of rosmarinic acid.

Analysis of the Genetic Diversity and Affinities of Different IranianSaturejaSpecies Based on SAMPL Markers

The different species of the genus Satureja are known as "Marze Kohi" in Iran. Herbal drugs of these plants have long been used in traditional medicine, and some species are currently used in food and pharmaceutical industries. In the present work, the genetic diversity and affinities of several Satureja species were studied based on Selectively Amplified Microsatellite Polymorphic Loci (SAMPL) using five primer combinations. A total of 515 polymorphic DNA fragments were amplified, with a mean of 103 bands per assay. Among the species the maximum distance was observed between S. hortensis and S. Isophylla, while the maximum degree of similarity was obtained between S. rechingeri and S. khuzistanica. Cluster analysis was performed for all SAMPL data using the neighbor-joining method. All species for which multiple accessions were sampled were monophyletic with maximum bootstrap support. The investigated species were clustered in three main groups. In general, the relationships among Satureja species revealed by the cluster analysis were somewhat congruent with their geographical distributions.

Molecular phylogeny of Menthinae (Lamiaceae, Nepetoideae, Mentheae) – Taxonomy, biogeography and conflicts

Although the subfamily Nepetoideae (Lamiaceae) is considered to be monophyletic, relationships between tribes, subtribes and genera within the subfamily are poorly understood as complex and possibly homoplasious morphological characters make taxa difficult to delimit. DNA sequence data from three regions (chloroplast: trnK intron; trnL-F; nuclear: ITS) in total including 278 accessions, representing 38 out of 40 genera of subtribe Menthinae and 11 outgroup genera, were used to reconstruct the evolutionary history, test previous hypotheses of classification, explain biogeographic patterns and elucidate character evolution. Using maximum parsimony (MP) and Bayesian analysis phylogenetic reconstructions based on nuclear and chloroplast sequence data were incongruent, consequently the data were analyzed separately. Both nuclear and chloroplast datasets provide strong support for three major lineages: the “ Satureja”, “ Micromeria” and “ Clinopodium” group. The first contains members of Satureja and Gontscharovia. In the second lineage Micromeria s.str. and Origanum were resolved as monophyletic, Pentapleura and Zataria indicated as sister groups. Thymbra includes two species of Satureja turning the latter genus polyphyletic. Thymus is revealed as paraphyletic with respect to Argantoniella and Saccocalyx in both and Origanum in the plastid dataset only. In the third lineage, the Clinopodium-group, branching pattern is highly incongruent among datasets and possibly influenced by recent and ancient hybridization, chloroplast capture and incomplete lineage sorting. However, identical terminal groups are inferred in both analyses. A Madagascan lineage of “ Micromeria”, sister to the recently described South African Killickia, is suggested to represent a new genus. The Himalayan Clinopodium nepalense group and the tropical African C. abyssinicum alliance are monophyletic but indicated in different positions. Both groups appear in the ITS phylogeny in a clade with Cyclotrichium and Mentha, relationships not suggested previously. The enigmatic Micromeria cymuligera is close to Mentha and possibly is a representative of this genus. Species of Acinos, now regarded as part of Clinopodium, are mixed up with species of Ziziphora, questioning either the inclusion of Acinos in Clinopodium or generic distinctness of Ziziphora. All data sets suggest a monophyly of the New World taxa and argue for long distance dispersal from the Old World, rather than a vicariance explanation. Bystropogon marks the split up between the two lineages. Inclusion of 22 genera intermixed with Clinopodium spp. in the New World clade provides evidence that the current circumscription of the genus is highly unnatural. Low sequence divergence resulting in low phylogenetic resolution especially at the base of the clade indicate a rapid radiation accompanied by considerable ecological diversification and speciation.

Satureja L. Essential Oils in Prevention and Phytotherapy of Salmonella Infection

ABSTRACTIn wide regions of the Balkan Peninsula, plant species of the genus Satureja L. (Lamiaceae) are traditionally used as natural preservatives for meat products, and as antimicrobial agents in phytotherapy of food borne diseases. The present study describes the antimicrobial activity of eight Satureja species essential oils against Salmonella enteritidis. The aerial parts of wild growing plant material of eight Satureja species were collected from the central part of Balkan Peninsula. After drying, essential oils were produced by hydrodistillation in a Clavenger-type apparatus. The antimicrobial activities of the tested essential oils were evaluated using the following two methods: agar disc diffusion method and broth micro-well dilution method. The results of disc diffusion method showed especially high activity of S. subspicata ssp. subspicata, S. montana ssp. montana and S. hortensis essential oils. The minimum inhibitory/bactericidal concentration (MIC/MBC) of the essential oils was in the range from 0.20–6.25 μl/ml. S. horvatii, S. hortensis and S. montana ssp. montana exibited the highest antimicrobial activity. Also, it has been recorded that each essential oil, except S. subspicata, in the same concentration had both inhibitory and bactericidal effect (MIC=MBC).

Effect of carvacrol on hepatic marker enzymes and antioxidant status in d‐galactosamine‐induced hepatotoxicity in rats

Carvacrol (2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-phenol) is a predominant monoterpenic phenol which occurs in many essential oils of the family Labiatae including Origanum, Satureja, Thymbra, Thymus, and Corydothymus species. This study was designed to investigate the hepatoprotective and antioxidant properties of carvacrol on D-galactosamine (D-GalN)-induced hepatotoxicity and oxidative damage in male albino Wistar rats. D-GalN hepatotoxic rats exhibited elevation in the activities of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, and lipidperoxidative markers such as thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and lipid hydroperoxides. Activities of enzymatic antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase) and the levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, and reduced glutathione) in the plasma, erythrocytes, liver, and kidney decreased in the hepatotoxic rats. Oral administration of carvacrol for 21 days brought these parameters towards normal. The biochemical observations were supported by histological studies of rat liver and kidney tissues. These results suggest that carvacrol could afford a significant hepatoprotective and antioxidant effect against D-GalN-induced rats.

Nutlet surface micromorphology of Turkish Satureja (Lamiaceae)

There are some taxonomic uncertainties within the Turkish members of Satureja. It is extremely difficult to distinguish some of Satureja species because of their great morphological similarity. They are represented by fifteen species in Turkey. In this study, the nutlet surface features of species were examined using both stereoscopic and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The investigated species can be divided into two main types, the more or less smooth and the sculptured, and four subtypes, undulate-reticulate, reticulate, reticulate-protuberculate and papillate-tuberculate. This work offers the description, comparison and illustration of all of these types and subtypes. In addition, the unknown nutlet features of eight Satureja species are described in detail for the first time. It is clear that in future studies, external nutlet characters, especially surface texture, could be useful in species classification of the complex Satureja genus.