Satiety In Men Research Articles

Appetite-Related Hormones and Subjective Feelings of Hunger and Satiety in Adults Who Regularly Consume Dairy and Those Who Limit Dairy Consumption

Abstract Objectives To compare self-reported feelings of hunger and fullness with biological markers associated with appetite and satiety in men and women who are habitual dairy consumers (DC) vs limited dairy consumers (LD). We hypothesize that the DC group will have different appetite perceptions along with different concentrations of the hunger hormone, ghrelin, and the anabolic hormone, insulin, before and following a mixed meal challenge. Methods Adults from a cross-sectional study who completed the Block food frequency questionnaire were categorized as DC (n = 40, consumed >2 cup-eq/d of milk, yogurt, and/or cheese), or LD (n = 37, consumed < ½ cup-eq/d of dairy). On a test day, overnight fasted and postprandial blood samples were collected after a (non-dairy) mixed meal challenge at 30 min, 3h, and 6h. Feelings of hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and prospective consumption were measured by visual analog scales (VAS) in the fasted state, and immediately following the mixed meal at 20 min, 40 min, 1h, 1.5h, 2h, 3h, 4h, 5h, and 6 h. Differences in VAS ratings, fasting glucose, insulin, and ghrelin, and 6-h incremental area under the curve (iAUC) between groups were analyzed using t-tests. Results The DC group had lower mean fasting ghrelin (P < 0.001) and higher fasting glucose (P < 0.05) compared to LD. Fasting insulin levels were not different between groups (P = 0.87), nor were there differences for 6-h iAUC for glucose, ghrelin, or insulin. Hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and prospective consumption, summarized as 6-h AUC, were not different between groups. No correlations were found between hormone concentrations and feelings of hunger, fullness, desire to eat, or prospective consumption, at fasting or 30 min, 3h or 6h following meal challenge. Conclusions Regular consumption of ≥2 cup-eq. of dairy was associated with a reduced fasting ghrelin that might signal less hunger compared to low dairy consumers, but no relationship between ghrelin and hunger was found. The postprandial response in ghrelin, glucose, and insulin were not influenced by habitual dairy consumption. Funding Sources Funding was provided by the United States Department of Agriculture and Arla Foods Inc.

A Plant-Based Meal Increases Gastrointestinal Hormones and Satiety More Than an Energy- and Macronutrient-Matched Processed-Meat Meal in T2D, Obese, and Healthy Men: A Three-Group Randomized Crossover Study.

Gastrointestinal hormones are involved in regulation of glucose metabolism and satiety. We tested the acute effect of meal composition on these hormones in three population groups. A randomized crossover design was used to examine the effects of two energy- and macronutrient-matched meals: a processed-meat and cheese (M-meal) and a vegan meal with tofu (V-meal) on gastrointestinal hormones, and satiety in men with type 2 diabetes (T2D, n = 20), obese men (O, n = 20), and healthy men (H, n = 20). Plasma concentrations of glucagon-like peptide -1 (GLP-1), amylin, and peptide YY (PYY) were determined at 0, 30, 60, 120 and 180 min. Visual analogue scale was used to assess satiety. We used repeated-measures Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for statistical analysis. Postprandial secretion of GLP-1 increased after the V-meal in T2D (by 30.5%; 95%CI 21.2 to 40.7%; p < 0.001) and H (by 15.8%; 95%CI 8.6 to 23.5%; p = 0.01). Postprandial plasma concentrations of amylin increased in in all groups after the V-meal: by 15.7% in T2D (95%CI 11.8 to 19.6%; p < 0.001); by 11.5% in O (95%CI 7.8 to 15.3%; p = 0.03); and by 13.8% in H (95%CI 8.4 to 19.5%; p < 0.001). An increase in postprandial values of PYY after the V-meal was significant only in H (by 18.9%; 95%CI 7.5 to 31.3%; p = 0.03). Satiety was greater in all participants after the V-meal: by 9% in T2D (95%CI 4.4 to 13.6%; p = 0.004); by 18.7% in O (95%CI 12.8 to 24.6%; p < 0.001); and by 25% in H (95%CI 18.2 to 31.7%; p < 0.001). Our results indicate there is an increase in gut hormones and satiety, following consumption of a single plant-based meal with tofu when compared with an energy- and macronutrient-matched processed-meat meat and cheese meal, in healthy, obese and diabetic men.

A small dose of whey protein co-ingested with mixed-macronutrient breakfast and lunch meals improves postprandial glycemia and suppresses appetite in men with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial

Large doses of whey protein consumed as a preload before single high-glycemic load meals has been shown to improve postprandial glycemia in type 2 diabetes. It is unclear if this effect remains with smaller doses of whey co-ingested at consecutive mixed-macronutrient meals. Moreover, whether hydrolyzed whey offers further benefit under these conditions is unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate postprandial glycemic and appetite responses after small doses of intact and hydrolyzed whey protein co-ingested with mixed-nutrient breakfast and lunch meals in men with type 2 diabetes. In a randomized, single-blind crossover design, 11 men with type 2 diabetes [mean±SD age: 54.9±2.3 y; glycated hemoglobin: 6.8%±0.3% (51.3±3.4 mmol/mol)] attended the laboratory on 3 mornings and consumed 1) intact whey protein (15 g), 2) hydrolyzed whey protein (15 g), or 3) placebo (control) immediately before mixed-macronutrient breakfast and lunch meals, separated by 3 h. Blood samples were collected periodically and were processed for insulin, intact glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), leptin, peptide tyrosine tyrosine (PYY3-36), and amino acid concentrations. Interstitial glucose was measured during and for 24 h after each trial. Subjective appetite was assessed with the use of visual analog scales. Total postprandial glycemia area under the curve was reduced by 13%±3% after breakfast following the intact whey protein when compared with control (P<0.05). Hydrolyzed whey attenuated early glucose after breakfast when compared with control (P<0.05). Glycemia was improved postlunch after the intact whey protein only when compared with control (P<0.05). Greater satiety was observed after the intact whey protein only after both meals when compared with control (P<0.05). Insulin concentrations increased after both the intact and hydrolyzed whey protein, showing strong positive correlations with increases in valine and isoleucine (P<0.05). Incretin and appetite regulatory hormone responses were similar across trials (P>0.05). The consumption of a small 15-g dose of intact whey protein immediately before consecutive mixed-macronutrient meals improves postprandial glycemia, stimulates insulin release, and increases satiety in men with type 2 diabetes. This trial was registered at www.clinicialtrials.gov as NCT02903199.

Assessing beans as a source of intrinsic fiber on satiety in men and women with metabolic syndrome

Dietary fiber is well-known for its satiety inducing properties. Adding fibers to mixed dishes is one way to increase fiber intake. However, adding fibers to foods versus including foods inherently containing fiber may reveal differing effects on satiety. The present study aimed to explore the satiety effects of adding fiber to a mixed meal versus using beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) as a source of intrinsic fiber in the meal. In this pilot study, 12 men and women with metabolic syndrome were randomly assigned to eat three standard meals in a crossover design on three different occasions that contained either no added fiber (control (NF)), extrinsic or added fiber (AF), or whole black beans as the source of intrinsic fiber (BN). Meals were matched for energy and macronutrient composition. Five hour postprandial subjective satiety was measured along with blood glucose, insulin, and the GI hormones, cholecystokinin (CCK) and peptide tyrosine tyrosine (PYY3-36). All meals induced fullness to a similar degree; however, the AF meal suppressed prospective consumption (F2,187 = 9.05, P = 0.0002) compared to the BN or NF meals. The NF meal tended to result in more satisfaction than the BN meal (F2,187 = 5.91, P = 0.003). The BN meal produced significantly higher postprandial CCK concentrations compared to the AF (F2,187 = 6.82, P = 0.001) and NF meals (F2,187 = 6.82, P = 0.002). Similar findings were observed for PYY3-36 response for BN > AF meal (F2,170 = 9.11, P < 0.0001). Postprandial insulin was significantly reduced after the BN meal, compared to the NF (F2,187 = 22.36, P < 0.0001) meal. These findings suggest that incorporating whole black beans into a meal has acute beneficial metabolic and GI hormone responses in adults with metabolic syndrome and are preferred over adding equivalent amounts of fiber from a supplement.

Assessing beans as a source of intrinsic protein and fiber on satiety in men and women with the Metabolic Syndrome

Multi‐pronged dietary strategies are gaining increasing attention as tools to manage appetite and provide metabolic and weight control in people with the metabolic syndrome (MS). The study aim was to assess the effect of beans and the fiber component of a diet on satiety and metabolic endpoints in people with the MS. In a 3‐arm randomized cross‐over design, 12 subjects with the MS ate a standard breakfast plus a side dish of either: whole beans (B), pasta matched for fiber (F, 13g), or pasta with no fiber added (NF, 0g). Meals were matched for energy and macronutrients. Subjective satiety (SS; by VAS), glucose, insulin and PYY3–36 were assessed over 5 h after meal consumption; subsequent intake was assessed from food records until midnight the next day. Main effects of meal and time were apparent for hunger (p=0.02), desire to eat (p=0.008), prospective consumption (p=0.0002), meal satisfaction (p=0.003), level of comfort (p=0.02), and level of contentment (p= 0.01). Meal B produced a greater level of comfort and contentment than F or NF, whereas F induced greater reductions in hunger, desire to eat, and prospective consumption compared to B or NF. Insulin was significantly reduced after meal B compared to F (p=0.03) or NF (p&lt;0.0001), with no differences in glucose among meals. PYY3–36 was significantly greater after the B meal compared to F (p&lt;0.0001) or NF (p=0.01). Beans appear to regulate appetite in patients with the MS.

A high-fat diet temporarily accelerates gastrointestinal transit and reduces satiety in men

High-fat (HF) diets of 2 weeks have been shown to accelerate gastrointestinal (GI) transit and decrease satiety. However, the effects of HF diets on GI transit over longer periods than 2 weeks are unknown. We hypothesize that over 4 weeks, GI transit of a HF test meal will accelerate. The study was a repeated measures design with 10 male volunteers completing a 1-week HF diet intervention and 7 completing a 4-week HF diet intervention with testing once a week on the same day throughout the 4 weeks. Gastric emptying (GE) was measured using the 13C-octanoic acid breath test and mouth-to-caecum transit time (MCTT) using the inulin H2 breath test. Satiety was analysed using visual analogue scales and an ad libitum buffet meal. Body mass increased by 1.3 kg over the 4 weeks (p = 0.036). GE latency time decreased from 45 ± 8 to 41 ± 10 min (p = 0.047) over 1 week but there were no changes in any GE parameters over the 4 weeks. MCTT was accelerated over 1 week (p = 0.036) from 308 ± 43 to 248 ± 83 min. However, over the 4-week period, there was no change. Volunteers became more hungry and desire to eat became greater after 1 week (p = 0.01). Changes in satiety were also evident over the 4 weeks. Satiety was reduced in the primary weeks and then returned to baseline towards the end of the intervention. GI adaptation to a HF diet occurred over a 1-week period and returned to pre-diet levels at the end of 4 weeks.

Influence of ghrelin on the gastric accommodation reflex and on meal‐induced satiety in man

Ghrelin increases gastric tone in the fasting state and enhances gastric emptying in gastroparesis. The aims of the study were to evaluate the effect of ghrelin on postprandial gastric tone and on meal-induced satiety in health. Ten healthy volunteers underwent a barostat study on two occasions. After determination of intra-abdominal pressure (minimal distending pressure, MDP), isobaric volume measurement was performed for 90 min at MDP + 2 mmHg. After 20 min, ghrelin (40 microg) or saline was administered i.v. over 30 min in a double-blind-randomized cross-over design, followed 10 min later by a liquid meal (200 mL, 300 kcal). Stepwise isobaric distentions (+2 mmHg per 2 min) were performed 60 min after the meal. Data (mean +/- SEM) were compared using paired Student's t-test and ANOVA. Separately, a satiety drinking test (15 mL min(-1) until satiety score 5) was performed on 10 subjects twice, after treatment with placebo or ghrelin. Ghrelin infusion significantly inhibited gastric accommodation (mean volume increase adjusted means 108.0 +/- 50 vs 23.0 +/- 49 mL, P = 0.03, ANCOVA with the premeal postinfusion volume as covariate) and reduced postprandial gastric volumes (197.2 +/- 24.6 vs 353.5 +/- 50.0 mL, P = 0.01). Pressures inducing perception or discomfort during postprandial gastric distentions were not altered. During satiety testing, ghrelin did not alter nutrient volume ingested till maximal satiety (637.5 +/- 70.9 vs 637.5 +/- 56.2 mL, ns). Ghrelin administered during the meal significantly inhibits gastric accommodation in health, but this is not associated with early satiation.

S1674 Influence of Ghrelin On Gastric Accommodation and Meal-Induced Satiety in Man

S1674 Influence of Ghrelin On Gastric Accommodation and Meal-Induced Satiety in Man

Influence of Motilin on Gastric Fundus Tone and on Meal-Induced Satiety in Man: Role of Cholinergic Pathways

Motilin agonists are strong gastroprokinetics, but their impact on symptoms in delayed gastric emptying has been disappointing. It has been speculated that it is due to the contractile effect of motilin agonists on the proximal stomach, but the pathway involved and the symptomatic consequences have been incompletely elucidated. To study whether motilin enhances proximal stomach tone and enhances meal-induced satiety and to evaluate whether this effect involves a cholinergic pathway. A gastric barostat was used to study, in healthy subjects, the effect of motilin (300 ng/kg/30 min i.v.) or saline on fasting gastric fundus tone and on post-prandial relaxation. To evaluate the involvement of a cholinergic pathway, atropine (12 microg/kg/h) was administered intravenously simultaneously with or before and during motilin infusion in the fasting state. Finally, a satiety drinking test was performed in 21 subjects twice after pretreatment with placebo or motilin and with placebo or atropine. Administration of motilin caused a significant increase of fasting fundus tone expressed as decrease of the mean balloon volume (324 +/- 60 mL vs 213 +/- 62 mL, p < 0.05). Simultaneous administration of atropine and motilin did not generate a significant volume change (192 +/- 60 mL vs 181 +/- 83 mL, NS), but pretreatment with atropine alone induced a relaxation, and when motilin was added this revealed an ongoing contraction (192 +/- 24 mL vs 136 +/- 21 mL, p < or = 0.05). Motilin infusion also inhibited gastric accommodation (p < or = 0.05 vs placebo) and increased satiety during a satiety drinking test (p < or = 0.05 vs placebo). Administration of motilin causes a contraction of the proximal stomach in humans and increases meal-induced satiety. The effect of motilin is atropine-resistant and involves a direct muscular pathway or a non-cholinergic neural pathway.

Increasing the volume of a food by incorporating air affects satiety in men

Previous research indicated that increasing the volume of food by adding water can lead to reductions in energy intake. However, the addition of water affects not only the volume but also the energy density (kJ/g) of foods. No studies have examined the effect of volume independent of energy density on intake. We examined the effect of food volume independent of energy density on satiety. In a within-subjects design, 28 lean men consumed breakfast, lunch, and dinner in the laboratory 1 d/wk for 4 wk. On 3 d, participants received a preload 30 min before lunch and on 1 d no preload was served. Preloads consisted of isoenergetic (2088 kJ), yogurt-based milk shakes that varied in volume (300, 450, and 600 mL) as a result of the incorporation of different amounts of air. Preloads contained identical ingredients and weighed the same. The volume of the milk shake significantly affected energy intake at lunch (P < 0.04) such that intake was 12% lower after the 600-mL preload (2966 +/- 247 kJ) than after the 300-mL preload (3368 +/- 197 kJ). Subjects also reported greater reductions in hunger and greater increases in fullness after consumption of both the 450- and 600-mL preloads than after the 300-mL preload. Changing the volume of a preload by incorporating air affected energy intake. Thus, the volume of a preload independent of its energy density can influence satiety.

No effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 on short-term satiety and energy intake in man

Centrally administered glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) inhibits feeding in fasted rats, but its role in human satiety has been largely unexplored. The present study investigated the effect of peripheral GLP-1 infusion on gastric emptying and satiety in man. Ten non-obese male subjects were infused in a randomized single-blind within-subject crossover study using saline infusion as control. They received either a GLP-1 infusion (1.2 pmol/kg per min) or a saline infusion for 1 h, at 18.00 hours. At 20 min after starting the infusion the gastric emptying of a 400 ml water load was measured. Subjects completed behavioural self-rating scales to assess hunger and satiety. After 40 min subjects were given a buffet meal ad libitum and their food intake was recorded. GLP-1 infusion raised circulating GLP-1 concentrations to approximately twice those seen following a meal. It did not affect circulating insulin levels but caused a small fall in glucose levels. Gastric emptying of the water load was significantly delayed by the GLP-1 infusion. Energy intake from the buffet was unaffected by GLP-1 infusion. Self-assessment of hunger and satiety was similarly unaffected by the infusion before the buffet meal, although subjects tended to be less hungry after the buffet meal following GLP-1 infusion (P < 0.09). GLP-1 infusion delayed gastric emptying but had a minimal effect on food intake and satiety. This study casts doubts on whether GLP-1 is a major satiety factor in man, although a raised circulating plasma glucose level, as would normally occur postprandially, might be necessary for GLP-1 to increase satiety.

Volume of food consumed affects satiety in men

This study tested the hypothesis that the amount (weight or volume) of food consumed affects the satiating potency of a food, independent of its energy content. Normal-weight young men (n = 20) were tested in a within-subjects design. Subjects were served a milk-based drink or no drink (control), followed 30 min later by a self-selected lunch and > 4 h later by a self-selected dinner. Milk drinks were equal in energy content (2088 kJ, or 499 kcal) and had similar proportions of fat (30.3%), carbohydrate (54.7%), and protein (15%) across three volumes: 300, 450, and 600 mL. Ratings of palatability, sensory properties, and energy content of the drinks and of hunger completed before consumption of the preloads were not significantly different among conditions. The results showed that preload volume affected energy intake at lunch (P < or = 0.009) such that energy intake was less after the 600-mL preload than after the 300-mL preload. This effect was still present when energy intake at dinner was included (P < or = 0.022). At lunch, including energy from the preload, subjects overate relative to the control condition (4323 +/- 322 kJ) after the 300- (5263 +/- 321 kJ) and 450-mL (5011 +/- 300 kJ) preloads but not after the 600-mL (4703 +/- 353 kJ) preload. Thus, the best adjustment for the energy in the preloads was with the largest, least energy-dense drink. Consistent with the effects on intake, the volume of the drinks affected ratings of hunger and fullness. These results indicate that the volume consumed is an important determinant of satiety after milk drinks under these conditions.

Influence of ondansetron on meal-induced satiety in man

Influence of ondansetron on meal-induced satiety in man

Effects of carbohydrates in the form of pasta and bread on food intake and satiety in man

Two meals, made of the same raw material but with different structure (pasta versus bread) and different in their insulin and glucose response profiles where studied with respect to their effect on satiety measurements. Sixteen normal weight elderly men were served a pasta breakfast (PAS) and a bread breakfast (BRD) in a repeated measures design. Three hours after breakfast their ad libitum lunch meal intake was measured by VIKTOR a universal eating monitor. Subjective motivation to eat was measured repeatedly on Visual Analogue Scales from before breakfast to after lunch. Blood for glucose and insulin determinations was sampled simultaneously. The large differences in postprandial glucose and insulin responses previously reported after the same pasta and bread meals were verified in this study. Pasta produced a low and stable glucose and insulin response while the responses to bread were significantly different, with a higher initial postprandial phase and a drop below fasting blood glucose level in the late phase. Despite this, no differences were noted between the breakfast meals in any of the various measures to evaluate hunger/satiety. There were no differences in eating behaviour at the intake of a subsequent defined ad libitum lunch. However, the pasta breakfast induced a lower insulin response after lunch consumed 3 hours later. This beneficial second meal effect could be one long term mechanism whereby lente diets improve metabolic control.

Role of gastrointestinal factors in hunger and satiety in man.

There is, we feel, a strong case to be made for a major influence of gastrointestinal factors in the control of eating behaviour in humans. Moreover, the findings suggest that satiety and hunger are controlled by different gastrointestinal mechanisms. Gastric distension is perhaps the most important factor that stops people eating, but a true feeling of satiety also requires the presence of nutrients in the small intestine. Hunger appears to be little influenced by the amount of food in the stomach and appears to be more dependent on the nutrient load in the small intestine. I do not mean by this to suggest that the gastrointestinal mechanisms are the only mechanisms controlling eating behaviour in humans or even the most important. Nevertheless they constitute an important and fundamental control system that links with the post-absorptive mechanisms and a plethora of social and conditioning factors to influence what we eat.

Regulation of Hunger and Satiety in Man

From the perspective presented in this minireview, it is clear that a variety of psychological and physiological factors interact to regulate feeding behavior. The hunger-satiety cycle involves preabsorptive and postabsorptive humoral and neuronal mechanisms. Psychological, social and environmental factors, nutrients and metabolical processes and gastric contractions originate hunger signals. Eating, in turn, activates inhibitory signals to produce satiety. Because of the delay between the swallowing of food and the digestion of food, the satiety mechanism requires a short-term signal to prevent over-eating. This short-term satiety signal is activated by psychological factors (such as sensory-specific satiety), chemical senses (taste and smell) and mechanical factors related to the process of swallowing and gastric distension. The long-term satiety is then activated by the chemoreception of nutrients and peptides by the gastrointestinal system (including the liver), the CNS and by intrinsic CNS mechanisms. The fine regulation of feeding behavior through these mechanisms will ensure the maintenance of normal energy metabolism. It is important to note, however, that despite all the efforts that have gone into the study of peripheral and central mechanisms of ingestive behavior--expressed in thousands of publications related to the anatomy, chemistry and metabolism, physiology and behavioral aspects of feeding--we will lack an understanding of the interactions among signals within a system or among different systems.

Effect of prefeeding lipid on food intake and satiety in man.

Experiments were carried out in normal volunteers to investigate whether preingestion of lipid reduces food intake. In the first set of experiments, 300 ml beef consomme soup with or without 60 g margarine was fed to each of six volunteers, followed 20 minutes later by either a low fat solid meal or a preselected appetising meal. Subjects were allowed to eat as much of the meal as they wished. Preingestion of the high fat soup had no significant effect on the consumption of either of the solid meals and did not influence sensations of hunger or fullness. As we have previously shown that prefeeding a fatty soup delays gastric emptying of a subsequent meal, this suggests that gastric distension may play a relatively minor role in regulating food intake. In the second set of experiments, we studied the effect of ingesting either a high fat breakfast (65 g fat, 927 kcal) or a similar low fat breakfast (8-1 g fat, 418 kcal) on the consumption of a preselected appetising lunch in six healthy volunteers. The high fat breakfast significantly reduced the amount of the meal eaten at lunchtime (p less than 0.02), the total energy intake from the meal (p less than 0.05) and the rate of eating (p less than 0.05) compared with the low fat breakfast. When the subjects were presented with their lunchtime meal they felt significantly less hungry after the high fat breakfast (p less than 0.05). Only a small proportion of either meal (15% of the high fat meal v 12% of the low fat meal) remained in the stomach and plasma glucose concentrations had returned to fasting levels. Plasma triglyceride concentrations were much higher at lunchtime after ingestion of the high fat breakfast (p<0.001). The energy intake from the breakfast and lunch combined was not significantly different on the high fat breakfast day, indicating that the energy consumption at lunch compensates for the amount eaten at breakfast. These results are compatible with the concept that the interaction of nutrients with small intestinal receptors may play a part in limiting food intake.

Effects of cholecystokinin and calcitonin on evoked brain potentials and satiety in man

Central nervous effects of the peptides cholecystokinin (CCK) and calcitonin (CT) were tested in an attention task for their effects on Auditory Event Related Potentials (AERPs) and for their effects on satiety and activation as measured in self-rating scales. Thirteen healthy subjects received either 3 IDU/kg body weight CCK 1–33, 0.1 IU/kg bodyweight CT and placebo according to a double-blind within-subject cross-over design. Subjects had fasted for at least 16 hr prior to the experiment. CCK induced the feeling of satiety after stimulation with the preparation of a meal. The peptides prevented an attenuation of the N2-component of the AERP after the preparation of a meal, indicating that the subjects were less distracted by the food cues. The results suggest that the central nervous effects of CCK and CT may constitute an aspect of satiated behavior.

Effects of ceruletide on satiety in man: a study based on evoked potentials

Effects of ceruletide on satiety in man: a study based on evoked potentials

Cholecystokinin-induced satiety in man

Cholecystokinin-induced satiety in man