Sardar Sarovar Research Articles

The Stakeholder Model for Water Resource Projects

The water resource development projects in India have been facing problems due to immense time and cost overruns. There is also the risk of taking a skewed path when planners and policy makers tend to ignore the existence of less-vocal and non-vocal entities. This could be due to a lack of a proper framework for understanding the nature and dimensions of the competing, conflicting, and varied demands both by the adversely affected and the beneficiary entities. This calls for identifying various stakeholders of the water resource projects so as to develop a stakeholder's model which is expected to not only help categorize the stakeholders along the lines of beneficial and adverse effects but also to gauge their capacity to influence change in the course of the projects. The stakeholders can be defined as individuals or group of entities who may be affected by the water resource project during its conception, construction, and operation who, in turn, may also influence the future course of the project. For identifying the stakeholders, this paper proposes a three-tier approach leading to an eight-fold classification of stakeholders. As exemplified by the Sardar Sarovar Project, the identified classes of stakeholders can be structured into a model indicating their octagonal congregate of influences and the networked effect on the water resource project. Since stakeholders are important social and economic assets for public good, the best recourse is to create a win-win situation for all of them or work out a balance in relationships with its diverse constituents for optimum realization of stakeholder value. With these objectives in view, this paper suggests a four-level stakeholder relationship model incorporating levels of: (i) unin-formed, (ii) compliant, (iii) responsive, (iv) engaged. On attaining the highest ‘engaged’ level, the project is able to create synergy among all elements of its relationship network so as to realize optimum stakeholder value. The measurement of stakeholder value is of immense importance for understanding and responding to shifts in stakeholder expectations and reactions. The proposed ‘comparative measure’ approach for evaluating stakeholder value has the advantage of being discernible, forward-looking, and capable of eliminating the element of percep- tion in measurement by taking a comparative (rather than absolute) measure of the impact on beneficiary and adversely affected groups of stakeholders. This approach requires moral reasoning, involving a rational valuation of emotions (joy or grief) in case of social stakeholders, and conditions (favourable or unfavourable) in case of non-social stakeholders, as epitomized by the factual illustration of a decision related to the height of the Sardar Sarovar Dam. The implications of the stakeholder model are as follows: It serves the ‘4S‘ management functions of Sensing, Scanning, Signalling, and Strategizing. It can be used as a powerful tool for investigation, prognostication, redressal, and management of stakeholder issues. It can also be aptly used for guiding the continuous process of national water resource reforms with an aim to achieve balanced and sustainable development with minimum conflicts. To conclude, water resource projects would ultimately help maximize societal wel- fare and improve the governance system besides becoming stakeholder responsive.

Water and energy linkages for groundwater exploitation: a case study of Gujarat State, India

Water and energy, two important resources for human development, have inextricable interlinkages between them. Their complementarity, a blessing otherwise, causes a vicious cycle in a complex situation like the present case study of Gujarat State, India. This paper analyses the demand-supply situation of both sectors for a State that is primarily agrarian but also with a high industrial growth rate. Due to inequitable distribution of surface water, recurrent droughts and ever increasing demand trend, groundwater (a major source in the State) has been overexploited in many parts, leading to 'water mining' with worsening water quality. With more than 40% energy consumed for extracting groundwater, this has had a serious impact on the energy balance. The paper discusses the energy requirements to satisfy the water needs and the water requirements for generation of energy. Finally, the feasible options available to meet the crisis, ranging from development of mega projects like Sardar Sarovar and Kalpasar to micro water harvesting structures, water pricing, consumer training etc., are reviewed.

Water and Energy Linkages for Groundwater Exploitation: A Case Study of Gujarat State, India

Water and energy, two important resources for human development, have inextricable inter-linkages between them. Their complementarity, a blessing otherwise, causes a vicious circle in a complex situation like the present case study of Gujarat state, India. This paper analyses the supply-demand situation of both sectors for a state that is primarily agrarian but also with a high industrial growth rate. Due to inequitable distribution of surface water, recurrent droughts and an ever-increasing demand trend, groundwater (a major source in the state) has been over-exploited in many parts, leading to 'water mining' with worsening water quality. With more than 40% energy consumed for extracting groundwater, this has had a serious impact on the energy balance. The paper brings forth the energy requirements to satisfy the water needs and the water requirements for the generation of energy. Finally, the feasible options available to meet the crisis, ranging from the development of mega projects like Sardar Sarovar and Kalpasar to micro water harvesting structures, water pricing and consumer training, etc., are reviewed.

Engendering the Environment? Gender in the World Bank's Environmental Policies

Part 1 Theoretical perspectives: theorizing gender - a framework of analysis a gender evaluation of EIA theories women, development and environment - implications for EIA. Part 2 A case study of the World Bank: the rhetoric of gender, gendered rhetoric - EIA in the context of the World Bank's social policies the World Bank's EIA policy the Sardar Sarovar Project - history and politics EIA in practice revisiting gender and EIA.

Controlled Blasting for Removal of Concrete Plugs in Draft Tube Tunnels at Sardar Sarovar Project

During construction of the Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) Hydro Electric Project in India, an unprecedented flood entered the power house cavern through draft tube tunnels and caused damage to underground structures. After this incident, these draft tubes were plugged with concrete/reinforced concrete to prevent future flooding. After heavy gates were erected at the exit end of the draft tube tunnels, these plugs had to be removed by drilling and blasting without causing any damage to the concrete lining and the ribs erected in the tunnels. Controlled blasting was designed and executed successfully for removal of the plugs in the same manner as for tunnel blasting. This paper describes the details of concrete plugs, details of drilling and blasting adopted, and some interesting observations in respect of drilling and blasting in the concrete plugs. A seismic method based on the measurement of P-wave velocity in the concrete lining before and after blasting was used to quantify the changes (damage) to concrete lining.

Large Dams and Sustainable Development: A Case-study of the Sardar Sarovar Project, India

Along with being a basic human need, water is also a basic constituent for the survival of eco-systems of which people and their cultures are important components. The water resources distribution in India, predominantly an agrarian economy, is highly asymmetric and has been accompanied by severe decline in per-capita water availability during the past 50 years, with agriculture being the maximum water user, leading to over-exploitation of ground water and steadily depleting water tables along with a heavy energy bill. Gujarat State falls in a water stressed zone of the country and is also the victim of intra-state asymmetric water availability leading to an unwanted socio-economic disparity, with the following results: a poor literacy rate in water-deficit districts; concentration of industry and housing in regions with better water resources endowment; and demographic change, e.g. the shift of the prime workforce from drought-prone districts to water-surplus districts. This in turn denies the right to life, development, health, food, education and work for these migrant communities. To ensure a balanced development when there is less than one acre per capita of cultivable landholding and over 14 000 villages out of 18 563 are suffering from water scarcity, there is no other alternative but to transfer water from surplus to scarce areas of the state. This paper aims to raise some critical questions on water issues, food security, energy viability, rights of people, and most importantly, water security in the context of sustainable development.

The Manufacture of Popular Perceptions of Scarcity: Dams and Water-Related Narratives in Gujarat, India

This paper critically examines some narratives of water scarcity in Kutch, western India. It argues that images of dwindling rainfall and increasing drought largely serve to legitimize the controversial Sardar Sarovar dam and manufacture dominant perceptions concerning scarcity. This manufacture has naturalized scarcity in the region and largely benefits powerful actors such as politicians, industrialists and large farmers. But the needs of the poor in water-limited areas are neglected. By exploring the various connotations of scarcity, the paper argues that scarcity is both a biophysical phenomenon as well as a powerful discursive construct. By distinguishing between the “real” and “manufactured” aspects of water scarcity, the paper attempts to enhance understandings of environmental change at the local level.

Human Rights and Displacement: The Indian Supreme Court Decision on Sardar Sarovar in International Perspective

The human and environmental consequences of big development projects such as large dams have been a focus of increasing attention in many countries. Large-scale involuntary resettlement caused by such projects has become particularly contentious in a number of situations. In India where many large dams have been and are being built, the Sardar Sarovar dam on the Narmada river has been at the centre of a storm for over a decade. The latest development in the history of this project is the judgment given by the Supreme Court of India on 18 October 2000 adjudicating a public interest litigation petition filed by the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA—Save the Narmada Movement). This decision is of great significance not only for the project itself but also from a broader perspective.

Diverting Water: Revisiting the Sardar Sarovar Project

This article considers lessons to be learned from the Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP). Despite persistent attempts to portray the SSP as a technical solution to a technical problem, it is clear that many aspects of the project— from the consideration of alternatives, through the evaluation of costs and benefits, to the persistent delays in consulting with affected peoples— have been highly politicized. Drawing upon our increased awareness of the politicized nature of water resource projects, this article stresses the importance of three key issue areas: the collection and distribution of information; project accountability; and participation by affected peoples.

Resettlement in the Sardar Sarovar Project: A Cause Vitiated

The rights of poor people of developing countries are a delicate and controversial issue. The state resents any western intervention for human rights, more so when it concerns developmental work. For a change, the state of Gujarat relented in the face of local-international NGO pressure to effect better resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) policy. The state retreated from a haughty position of being the solely legitimate guardian of tribal interests. The triumph was short lived, however. A new national-international alliance emerged and turned R&R into a means to stall the project. The World Bank Independent Review strengthened the manoeuvre immensely. The state reverted to its old corrupt ways. The R&R remains precarious and the viability of the project is endangered.

Sardar Sarovar Project Revalidated by Supreme Court

The Sardar Sarovar Project has emerged from limbo after a six-year stay on further raising the height of the dam was vacated by an order of the Indian Supreme Court in October 2000. This multipurpose project has been termed 'Gujarat's lifeline' by some and an 'environmental disaster' by others. The NBA (Save Narmada Movement) approached the Court in 1994 on a plea that the Project authorities had defaulted grievously on the resettlement and rehabilitation of project-affected persons and in observing mandatory environmental stipulations. The Court dismissed the petition by a majority decision, finding the plaint unsubstantiated on either count. Benefits could start flowing within 18 months. That will be transforming.

Environmental Overview of the Sardar Sarovar Project

An overview of the various studies conducted to assess the environmental, ecological and social impacts, both positive and negative, of the Sardar Sarovar Project is presented. These studies have generally attempted to enhance the positive impacts, and to reduce the negative ones. The Sardar Sarovar Project is by far the most studied water project in the developing world, especially in social and environmental terms. The river Narmada and its numerous tributaries are a part of a very diverse system. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the river valley development is a complex task. The intricate interactions between various parameters, many of which cannot be definitively predicted, make EIA studies extremely difficult. The success of this project depends on how fast and how efficiently the various governmental agencies can work together with the NGOs, academics, the general public, and of course the politicians and policy makers.

Operation of Sardar Sarovar Conveyance System

Conveying 11.7 BCM of water annually over a distance of up to 700 km fulfilling the functional requirements such as safety, flexibility, dependability, equity of distribution and efficiency is challenging by any standard. Operation of the Sardar Sarovar Conveyance System is even more critical because of its unprecedented size, complexity, value of water for the drought-prone areas and inter-state commitments. This paper analyses the functional requirements of the system vis-à-vis the limitations of conventional operation. The Controlled Volume Concept of operation through remote monitoring and a control system is adopted, which calls for canal automation as a 'solution'. Discussing issues such as maintenance, training, economic evaluation etc., the paper concludes that the pilot project taken up on Vadodara DOC will be a forerunner for other irrigation projects.

Human Rights Dimension of Regional Water Transfer: Experience of the Sardar Sarovar Project

Regional water transfer-a water management alternative in general and a means of addressing water scarcity in particular-has been subject to various controversies including those relating to human rights. This paper presents the worldwide practice of RWT and describes the Indian experience against the background of water availability, legal provisions and national policies. Referring to various widely ratified international human rights instruments, the paper emphasizes that social desirability is equally as important as technical feasibility and economic viability of such projects. Intra-state regional imbalances and migration as a consequence of water scarcity in the State of Gujarat in India highlight the significance of Sardar Sarovar Project on the river Narmada. While discussing other alternatives such as rainwater harvesting, the paper goes on to establish that the state has no option but to implement RWT.

Water and Energy for Development in Gujarat with Special Focus on the Sardar Sarovar Project

More than 150 000 villages in India have been facing drinking water problems. In Gujarat State, one of the worst affected, not only is all its surface water fully tapped, but the groundwater is also overexploited (by consuming nearly 43% of state electricity) resulting in deterioration of water quality, causing health hazards. This paper highlights the importance of the Sardar Sarovar Project for the socioeconomic development of western India in general and Gujarat in particular. It also presents the path-breaking approach that has been adopted in relation to the environment, rehabilitation etc. It is concluded that in the present circumstances, the state has no choice but to harness Narmada waters.

River Basin Management: A Case Study of Narmada Valley Development with Special Reference to the Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujarat, India

Intra-basin and inter-basin transfer of water have become a necessity in view of severe regional imbalances in availability of water and drought conditions in India. This paper addresses the fundamental issues of river basin management in a multi-objective framework with a unique case study of Narmada River Valley Development, and demonstrates that the socioeconomic needs of the people override the rest of the working objectives. In inter-state water allocation, even a non-riparian state is considered when looking at the needs of the people. This paper focuses on the Sardar Sarovar Project on the river Narmada and highlights its rehabilitation, environmental and social aspects, and concludes that the project is a lifeline for people in western India.

Within the River: Collaboration and Methodology

********** The solidarity rally through the Narmada river valley arrives at Nisrapur, a village of 10,000 people near the banks of the river. This village is one of 62 slated for submergence as a result of the construction of dams along the Narmada.... People throng the streets. The beat of drums and metal thalis [plates] is interspersed with the trilling of flutes.... Slogans rend the air as flower petals rain down. Women and girls rush to apply red and yellow powder tilaks [devotional marks] to our foreheads. Rallyists swallowed by the crowd are swept along by the rhythm of the night, by the chanting, dancing, music-driven river of faces. The river swirls and eddies, flows forward and meanders. From the market square, long into the night, speeches, songs, and poems fill the air. Water is passed to slake our thirst. Like the Narmada river, it is water for life, not for the death that the dams will bring. A song of rebellion is taken up by the crowd and accompanied by rhythmic clapping.... Within it flows a message to a ll those who would sit back and bemoan the plight of the dispossessed and displaced of the world without doing anything to challenge it. It is simple: So that there is no darkness to fear, so that life is not drenched with tears.... That is why we choose the path of struggle. This extract from my summer 1999 research journal captures a moment of fieldwork, describing a struggle in central India that was an indelible part of my field experience. Its embodied philosophy of collaborative engagement raises questions about the appropriate practice of research. For three months of that summer, I conducted preliminary research on the construction of a multidam project in the Narmada Valley, India, and participated in resisting its construction. THE RIVER The Narmada River runs for 1,289 kilometers through the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, passing though fertile plains and a series of hill ranges including the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The river valley is home to wealthy cash-crop farmers and adivasi (tribal) subsistence farmers such as the Bhil and Bhilala. The Narmada Valley has been home to these peoples for generations, and the river is itself one of India's most sacred. Daughter of the Hindu god Shiva, Narmada is worshiped in numerous temples located along her banks. For generations, devotees have undertaken a parikrama, a foot pilgrimage along both banks of the river that traditionally takes three years, three months, and three days. For forty years, since 1961, the distant central government has wanted to construct 30 large, 135 medium, and 3,000 small dams along the river to harness the waters of the Narmada and its tributaries in order to provide water and electricity for development. The Sardar Sarovar Dam is the largest, currently in operation at a height of 85 meters, with a final proposed height of 136.5 meters. More than fifty villages have already been submerged during its construction. The central government claims that the Sardar Sarovar Project will irrigate 1.8 million hectares, including the drought-prone areas of Kutch and Saurashtra in Gujarat. However, the dam already consumes 80 percent of Gujarat's irrigation budget, with only 1.6 percent of cultivable land in Kutch and 9 percent of Saurashtra's cultivable land in its command area. Most water will in truth irrigate the sugar farms of wealthy Gujarat farmers (Fisher 1995; Roy 1999). A spate of independent research on megadam projects documents them as ecological, economi c, and cultural disasters that deliver but a fraction of purported benefits (McCully 1996). When construction of the planned dams along the Narmada is completed, up to 15 million people (especially adivasis and peasant farmers) will eventually be displaced through flooding, the construction of a canal to divert water from the Sardar Sarovar Dam, and the establishment of construction colonies and wildlife sanctuaries. …

Water, difference and power: unpacking notions of water ''users'' in Kutch, India

Kutch, a semi-arid district in the state of Gujarat in western India, is known for its water scarcity. Its panacea is made out to be the Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP), a controversial dam under construction on the Narmada River in western India. The paper analyses the social, caste and power dynamics in a village supposed to benefit from the project and shows how these are intrinsically tied to the water question. The analysis of the arrangements governing land and water use indicates that access to and control over water resources was always differentiated and this differentiation is likely to increase with the advent of canal irrigation. The paper argues that notions of the user and community need to be de-homogenised to accommodate variations arising due to historical legacies, class, caste, gender and occupation. The paper argues that both macro and micro-level water interventions are often blind to questions concerning social difference. Thus water schemes build on or reinforce already skewed social and power relations. It contends that unless social difference is taken seriously, even ecologically sustainable options such as watershed development may end up being old wine in new bottles. In order for issues such as equity and social justice to be addressed in water interventions, the paper argues for the need on the part of implementing agencies to be aggressively partisan in targeting the marginalised and socially excluded groups.

Damming waters and wisdom: protest in the Narmada River Valley

The science, technology, and wisdom of building large dams seem to be deemed unfashionable in the developed world. Developing countries like China and India, however, continue to believe that large dams are rational and legitimate development solutions. The Sardar Sarovar, across the river Narmada, is one such large dam which the Indian government has been building since the early 1960s. The past two decades have, however, spawned a unique, people-based, and non-violent protest against the Sardar Sarovar dam led by the Narmada Bachao Andolan. This paper documents the history of the Narmada Bachao Andolan and the flawed rationale behind the building of Sardar Sarovar.

Generating power: gender, ethnicity and empowerment in India's Narmada Valley

Current analyses of issues relating to ethnicity and empowerment are silent about the significance of the environment in shaping and being shaped by human relations. For its part, environmental policy research, with few exceptions, has also ignored the dynamics of identity construction and cultural values that inform human relationships with the environment and thus affect environmental sustainability. I address this gap in the scholarship through an analysis of the Sardar Sarovar Project [SSP] in India. I explore the interweaving of the constructions of gender, ethnicity and empowerment and their implications for a new politics of the environment - the politics of environmental justice. I argue that discourses of modernization underpin the arguments of all those who discuss the SSP, whether in favour or against.