Sanskrit Literature Research Articles

PERCEPTION OF INDIA IN CHINA AND GERMANY

Due to the spread of Buddhism and Buddhist culture to the East, Chinese travellers and pilgrims started visiting India in pursuit of Buddhist scriptures and learning of Buddhist philosophy as early as the first half of the first millennium of Common Era. These pilgrims and travellers also left the description of their travel. In the medieval and modern period also Chinese travellers, diplomats and scholars continued their journey towards India. However, the situation and perception both were different in these two periods from previous ancient era. German travellers to India started with the participation of the German soldiers in the British East India Company from the army of the Electorate of Hanover in 1782. The German nationalism grew as a reaction to the political and cultural domination of France and Britain. In their quest to find the roots of their language, they started looking at Sanskrit, Indian philosophy and culture. During the early 19th Century several German Romantics and scholars showed interest in Sanskrit literature. Some of the prominent names among them are Friedrich and August Wilhelm Schlegel, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Max Müller, Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt and Johann Gottfried Herder. Friedrich von Schlegel studied Sanskrit for over forty years and in 1808 he published the book Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier, wherein he argued that the prototypical “Aryans” founded the ancient European civilizations. With August Wilhelm Schlegel, the first Indology chair was started in the University of Bonn in 1819. Karl August Schlegel, the elder brother of Friedrich and August Wilhelm Schlegel prepared a military survey of southern India for the East India Company which proved very useful.

New Education Policy 2020: Design and Challenges of Implementation

A new National Education Policy has been launched which will bring radical changes in the education sector. It is more promising and flexible in formulating educational policy by targeting the shortcomings of earlier policies. Education is a subject in the joint list of both the center and the state, in which there will be no board exams for 10th and 12th, the focus is on basic education by dividing it into pre-primary, secondary, higher secondary and higher education. Primary education will be imparted in the mother tongue only arts. Various cultural sub-systems have been given independent status. The topic of student dropout has been taken seriously by suggesting the creation of integrated B.Ed. courses to create more quality education and teachers. According to the new educational policy, the gap between the universities and the college will be reduced. Until now, education was completely based on Western philosophy, instead of Indian language literature, Sanskrit literature poetry, Novels, science, plays, books like Ramayana, Mahabharata, including advanced philosophy like Vedas, Upanishad Gita, etc., Sanskrit is the former of India. It seems to be hoped that a more effective and efficient education can be provided through the use of various effective tools such as language of knowledge, pre-Ayurvedic medical practices, yoga, business guidance, education, assurance, financing, practice labs, etc.

Ganga: A subtle overview of names and glory in Sanskrit literature and the current scenario

River Ganga is the largest river in India. It represents one of the magnificent geographical features of the country. It would be incorrect to confine it to say only as a water body. Nothing can match its everlasting divinity. It has its roots in Indian culture. As the holy river originates from “Gangotri Gomukh” in the country, it speaks much more about the culture, tradition, way of living of people. Since times immemorial, India has been called as the Land of Lords. It has been said to be brought from heaven and therefore it has been always personified as Goddess Ganga. River Ganga is Mother Ganga by all means. Since history enormous literature has been written from time to time about her greatness. Indian literature is largely enriched with her praise and appreciation. The action–oriented ganga offers a wide knowledge and wisdom to the people besides providing its pious water. As it fertiles the soil along the basin, it nourishes the souls and minds. Educating us in many ways and aspects, it gives us an overview of the structure of society. It teaches us how to lead an ideal life while maintaining a calm attitude. It teaches us to fulfil our responsibilities in our work area. Mother Ganga must be viewed with the spectacles of love, respect, emotions and dedication. Therefore, to structure the education in Indian perspectives the cognitive, affective and psychomotor properties of Holy Ganges can be inherited into the education process or it must be said that we should learn from Mother Ganga to become a balanced and an all-rounder personality.

Ayurveda Approach for Adhd Through ‘Medhya, Hridya & Rasayana (a Case Study)

According to the centres for disease control and prevention statistics (CDC) reports that ADHD among 3-17 years of age represent to 9.8% population reaching up to 16% at higher scale of its progression. Children from 0-3 years group of post natal growth and development is also important for the prevention of syndrome where much improvments are suggesting to the present therapeutic protocols been followed in above traditonal systems of health and wellness. Based on the given literature in Sanskrit in Ayurveda is an attempt made to bring down the symptoms of agrression and irritability with poor orientation in contrast to the normal brain body image at chronoogical age to biological. The therapeutics above are connecting from physiological heart (Hridya) at centre being pleased with qualities of nourishment through live blood assessments indirectly through the sensory functions, skin colour and complexion and visual acuqity etc, for the effect over Brain (Medhya) through the process known under rejuvenation or renovation (Rasayana) the same sequence is followed for this case study preventing further progression of the condition is discussed

A Review of Chhanda (Meters) Found in Ashtanga Hridaya

Sanskrit, the oldest language in the world also called the ‘language of Gods’ not without any reason. It is the language of the four Veda. Chhanda Shastra is one among the six Vedanga. It is an essential component of Sanskrit Literature. Ayurvedic literature composed thousands of years ago, were written in Sanskrit only. Most of the Ayurveda Acharya were expert in other Shastra like Chhanda, Vyakarana etc. Ashtanga Hridaya written by Acharya Vagbhata is one of the most revered compendia in India and abroad as well. It is also one of the treatises which is translated into many languages. It is in the form of Padya (poem) and hence makes it very popular for recitation and memorization. Meters or Chhanda are an important and essential part of Sanskrit poetry. It is this part that makes it different from the prose. Chhanda are of many types -important among them are Sama vritta, Ardha sama vritta and Vishama Vritta Chhanda. In this article, Sama Vritta Chhanda, a type of Akshara Chhanda found in Ashtanga Hridaya are explored and they are explained with examples. There are around 25 types of Sama Vritta Chhanda are found in Ashtanga Hridaya. The knowledge of these Chhanda may help in understanding the sutra better and recitation easier with proper rhythm.

The eropolitical compound: immanence, transcendence and a parasitic operation of patriarchy in Sanskrit literature

Abstract This paper examines a pattern in Sanskrit literature, labelled for convenience the “eropolitical compound”. This is a formula whereby a male protagonist's claiming of a feminine figure is made instrumental to, or tied indissociably with, a political victory or reclamation of control over a public domain. This paper first reviews a number of examples of the motif in well-known works of drama, poetry, and eulogistic inscriptions largely of the fourth–seventh centuries ce, setting these against the particular historical and social contexts in which they occur. In a second step, the motif is identified at work in other genre and historic contexts of Sanskrit tradition, suggesting thereby that the figure also requires treatment at a broader level of analysis. The paper's third and final step is to adopt from Simone de Beauvoir the constructs of immanence, transcendence, and the woman as Other, in order to argue that the eropolitical compound is indeed a kind of formula or persisting theme that cuts across multiple historic and genre contexts, and that it should be seen as a normative construct reflecting and enacting a common strategy of patriarchal cultures.

Місце ящірки у священних книгах, скульптурі та системах вірувань Індії

A study concerning a lizard’s symbolism is well-known in the scholarly world. Nevertheless, it has not attracted the required attention of many academicians. In the light of Indian ethos, we have incredibly diverse belief systems for a lizard; somewhere, it is deified as the goddess Lakṣmī, but it is also considered a bad omen. A total of 88 names have been found for a lizard in Sanskrit. Some of the names are very typical and oft used, like godhā, pallī, saraṭa, and kṛkavāku, a variety of atypical names, like ṭaṭṭanī, dārumatsyāhvayā, brāhmaṇī, lalantikā, etc. are also found in the language. After collecting the lexical data for a lizard, we vividly find exciting occurrences in the Sanskrit literature. A lizard has been mentioned symbolically in texts from the Vedas to Tantra and classical Sanskrit literature to scientific treatises. Studying these texts, temple art, and belief systems in the light of a lizard is much required to uncoil the symbolism. Thus, this paper aims to comprehend and uncoil the symbolism of a lizard in Indian ethos based on literary and supportive temple art-related sources. This paper will give attempt to address the following problems: 1) Listing of Sanskrit names for a lizard and a general study of its auspicious and inauspicious shades; 2) Collection, interpretation, and study of the literary references (limited to Sanskrit texts only) related to a lizard (This literature will be divided into the following categories: “The beliefs like gaining merits and sins”; “Mythology”; “Vedic literature & Tantra”; “Miscellaneous”); 3) Study concerning the tangible heritage like temple art: an icon at the Hoyasaleshwara temple (Halebidu, Karnataka, India), goddess Jogul̥āmbā (Alampur, Andhra Pradesh, India), Virupaksha temple (Hampi, Karnataka, India), etc.; 4) Study of a few peculiar local belief systems in India.

Aadhunik Samskrit Kavita Or Maharishi Arvind Ka Aadhyatmik Rashtravaad

The natural self-respect of dignity and glory that people have towards their nation's land, population, culture, civilization, history, religion, literature, art, politics, philosophy of life etc. is called nationalism. Poet Maithilisharan Gupta has written-
 "jisako nij gaaruv tatha nij desh ka abheemaan hai
 vah nar nahin nar- pusu nira hai ya mere lie jarooree saamaan hai” ||The meaning of the word nation is very broad. In the meaning of 'Rajati Rajate Va Iti Rashtram', the word 'Rashtra' is derived from the root 'Raj Deeptau' and 'Sarvdhatubhya: Shtran' (Aunadic Sutra). National consciousness is situated in the form of a universal routine rather than being representative of any particular place, time or character. This eternal life force, which we are calling national consciousness, resides in the psyche of our countrymen, in their heartland. The feeling of nationalism lives in the minds and hearts of its people. This is the national form of India. The entire Sanskrit literature is full of nationalism, but the irony is that due to not being the language of common people, people are still unaware of the secrets hidden in these texts. Right from the Rigveda to cosmic literature, all the concepts of the nation and its related ideas are full of ideas. In the Vak Sukta of Rigveda, the sage says-“Truth, O king, and falsehood, and deception, come to the dominion of my nation”Some poet has said –“The north which is the sea and the south of the HimalayasVarsha tad bharatam nama bharati yatra santati:||”It is written in the Yajurveda that the nation should be independent, benevolent to the people and strive for the welfare of the world.“Janabhrtya Rashtrada Rashtra Me Datta , Visvabhrtastha Rashtra Da |Give me the nation , give me the nation in my own kingdom” ||It is also described in the Shukla Yajurveda –“........yogakshemam na: kalpantam” ||Also elsewhere –Ittha hi som inmade brahma cakara vardhanam |Shavistha Vajrinnojasa prithivya ni:shasha ahimarchannanu svarajyam”||In the Prithvi Sukta (12/1) and Rashtrabhivardhanam Sukta (1/29) of the Atharva Veda, the sages have described the same:Abhivritya sapatnanabhi ya no arayata: |Abhiprutanyantam tishtabhi yo no durasyati ||The Manusmriti expresses national consciousness as –This is the firstborn of the country-bornAll men on earth will learn their own character.” ||Modern Sanskrit poets are also reflecting nationalism in their poems.

Що таке санскрит? / Переклад з російської, вступна стаття та примітки Д. В. Бурби

The essay What is Sanskrit was published in 1911 as a preface to P. Ritter’s Sanskrit textbook. It is an updated version of the trial lecture, given by him in the fall of 1899 at Kharkiv University (Ukraine). There he was teaching Sanskrit from the autumn of 1900 at the Department of Comparative Linguistics and headed this Department later. The author debunks popular myths about Sanskrit, describes its place among Indian languages emphasizing temporal and geographical differences between Sanskrit and Vedic language, distinguishes epic and classical Sanskrit, lists the prominent works of Sanskrit literature, and pays tribute to the Indian grammatical tradition. He mentions such prominent works of ancient Indian Sanskritology as the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini (4th–3rd centuries BC), Nirukta of Yāska (4th century BC), Vārttika of Кātyāyana (3rd–2nd centuries BC), Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali (2nd century BC). Ritter’s account of the history of the discovery and study of Sanskrit in the West is interesting, as is the characterization of Sanskrit scholars (his predecessors and contemporaries), some of whom he knew personally. Ritter’s students testified that he was fluent in Ukrainian which he apparently knew from childhood but the lecture was given by him and then published in Russian as a result of two hundred years of systematic extirpation of the Ukrainian language in the Russian Empire. All notes except two marked are written by the translator. The notes provide philological, historical, and biographical information. The introductory article tells about the origin of P. Ritter, his studies, his work as a scientist, translator, compiler of the Ukrainian-language Anthology of Ancient Indian Literature, lecturer, and organizer of science, as well as about his hobby and his tragic death due to repressions of NKVD (People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs).

Sulabha-Janaka Samvada in Vyasa’s Mahabharata: Debating Meaning and Language Structures

The present paper offers an analytical study on the Sulabha-Janaka Samvada as one of the significant pieces of philosophical and religious instructions in the Shanti Parva of Vyasa’s Mahabharata. The dialogue that takes place between a male emperor and female recluse stands tall not only because it serves as an exploration of key feminine voices incessantly debating the ideas of Samkhya Philosophy and means to salvation(moksa) but also because it establishes Sulabha’s discourses as a rare occasion in the ambit of Sanskrit Literature. In this discourse, we find the idea of what constitutes a well-knit argument, proponents of a debate that defines meaning-making in the process of closely scrutinized and investigated language structure. This discourse between two polar personalities becomes a short philosophical dialogic treatise, amid hefty monologues such as the incessant instructions by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita and Bheeshma in the Shanti Parva interspaced by many teachings of Vidura. Sulabha’s counter-arguments to Janaka are significant for it redefines the meaning and path to moksa, and in the process, expounds on what is proper speech, the correct usage of language and vocabulary and the purpose of doing so irrespective of the biases of class, gender, caste and educational elitism. The Sulabha-Janaka conversation has not received its due credit either in the Western or Eastern academic scholarship and scholarly attention has only been invested in the teachings of theGita, the ideas of dharma and many similar aspects. This short textual study provides a fresh perspective on philosophizing human need of meaning making and understanding the art of negotiating the engagement process of meaning associated with its structure.
 Keywords: Sulabha-JanakaSamvaad, female aesthetics, Samkhya Philosophy, language, meaning, structure, Vyasa’s Mahabharata,

Buddhist Homiletics on Gambling (*Saddharmaparikathā, Ch. 12)

Abstract The paper focuses on the 12th chapter of the *Saddharmaparikathā, a Buddhist homileticians’ guidebook containing sample sermons, dealing with the topic of gambling (dyūta). I edit, translate, and discuss the chapter with an introduction that includes a short overview of gambling in Sanskrit literature at large. The anonymous author is dismissive of gambling in all its forms, whether it is practised for material gain, for mere pleasure, and even if studied as an art. In spite of its exiguity, his discussion of the topic is, as far as we are aware, the most comprehensive in classical Buddhist literature.

Contribution of Rabindranath as a follower of Sanskrit education

The aim of education, as Rabindranath Tagore sees it, is to give a sense of one's identity as a total man and to bring education in harmony with life. He believed that self-realization was the goal of education. A total man is the one who thinks of himself first and foremost as human being. Rabindranath was conscious of the educational environment of Asrama, learning from the dramas of Kalidasa and verses of Upanishadas, Vedas, Gita and its impact on the overall mental and spiritual development of students though restricted to privileged sections of society only. Rabindranath was highly influenced by the basic principles and structure of thought rooted to Upanishadas and Gita specifically as true essence bearer of three fundamental principles. The first principle states the importance of wisdom in controlling senses by overcoming egoistic ignorance to achieve self-purification of inner soul. The second principle is to achieve a sense of identity with the universe. The third principle is to see God in one’s own self. The personal experience of universal consciousness and of God is made possible by the combination of three processes namely Salutation and Submission, Integration and Service and Execution. According to Rabindranath, Education is a process for growth of mind and soul, establishing a community of spirit with man and nature. This educational process must aspire for the entry into the vast universal life and seek their fulfilment and rewards in its experiences. The Education is a process of self-purification for the pupil through the application of three principles namely freedom, inclusiveness and universalization. Rabindranath, born into family of a rich and intellectuals, though not having any formal education, but had undergone through Vedic literature like Upanishada, Puranas, Great epics etc., classic Sanskrit literature under the watchful eyes of Debendranath Tagore. His deep appreciation of Sanskrit literary works is reflected in his work of criticism, entitled “Prachin Sahitya”. His building of educational institutions like Santiniketan and Viswabhararti reflects this ideology only. According to Rabindranath, the Gayatri mantra appears to signify the identity of the person in sync with nature and universe. The Upanishadas also have left a binding impression over the poet reflected in some of his works. The great epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Puranic literature, Dharmashastra all have seemed to enter his soul. The poet is indebted to classical Sanskrit literature specially Kalidasa in terms of concepts of dualism.

Historical Evidences from the illustration of Pāṇinian Aphorism: A study

Sanskrit literature have contributed immensely to the field of historical study, it is Pāṇini who in his Aṣṭādhyāyī, first set a linguistic model with historical datas for the description of language in 5th Century B.C. Kāśikā-Vṛtti of Jayāditya and Vāmana is a well-coded gloss on Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī. The present study discusses some historical evidences found in Kāśikā in the form of examples and counter examples which are supplied by its authors to illustrate the working of the aphorisms of Aṣṭādhyāyī. Throughout the world, the scholars have shown great interest in the field of language-analysis and in this respect Sanskrit grammatical literature have contributed immensely by studying language-behavior of Ancient India. Like any other ancient language of any part of the globe, Sanskrit has been the successful means of carrying reflections of the ancient Indian cultural heritage. Sanskrit grammarians too have not lagged behind in this mission. As objective recorders of facts, Indian grammarians have tried to reveal various aspects for the study of ancient Indian history. Knowledge of Panini’s grammar is essential for Sanskrit language. The name of Aṣṭādhyāyī comes before us by saying the grammar of Panini. Aṣṭādhyāyī is a composition of aphorisms. It is difficult to explain the meaning of aphorisms without the help of commentary text. The enormous commentaries are available on this. They deal with different perspectives of research and study. Kāśikā or Kāśikā-Vṛtti is a ‘gloss’ whose purpose is to precisely explain sūtras(aphorisms) without leaving any doubt in the minds of the readers. To illustrate the working of aphorisms of Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī, the author of Kāśikā supply historical data in the form of examples and counter examples. Examples of Sanskrit grammatical text constitute a livelily norms of language-use which may be considered as one of its primary aspects. The description of this aspect of language-use in society in relation to various facts of social life tends to be interesting and the legitimate goal of historical investigation. It is taken for granted that the trimuni vyākaraṇa samples and records facts of ancient India from the source of natural speech. Coming unto the time of Jayāditya and Vāmana, the natural speech might be progressing rapidly towards a theoretical possibility. Still the historical recording mainly of diachronic nature noticed in the Kāśikā Vṛtti (KV) makes it appropriate a text of historical investigation. It will not be out of place to prepare below a brief but relevant outline of the nature and necessity of historical investigation when Pāṇini is claimed to be a scholar of the science of ancient Indian history having the critical attitude of accurate recording of facts in his Aṣṭādhyāyī.

Conceptual and Literary Analysis on Bhurjah (Betula Utilis D. Don)

Aim- To review comprehensive literature on Bhurjah (Betula utilis D. Don) w.s.r. to its therapeutic activity. Background- Bhurjah (Betula utilis D. Don) is a very ancient traditional medicine, commonly known as Bhojpatra in Hindi and Himalayan birch in English. Bark of Betula utilis was used in ancient times for writing Sanskrit literature and texts. Ancient sages used Bhojpatra to write down manuscripts and those literature remains unaffected by microbes, environmental and biological factors. From immemorial time Bhurjah has been used in Yagya karma by the sages. Material And Methods- The literature review was compiled from distinctive available Ayurvedic literatures and various published literature relevant to Bhurjah. Conclusion- Bhurjah widely used in Ayurvedic system of medicine in the treatment of various diseases like Kustha (various skin diseases), Karnashoola (otalgia), Visarpa (erysipelas), Medovishahara (anti-obesity and anti-toxic), Vranashodhana (wound purification) and Tridoshashamana (Vata, Pitta, Kapha alleviation). It has studied for various therapeutic activities like, anti-microbial activity, anti-oxidant activity, anti-inflammatory activity, mild anti hyperglycemic activity, anticancer activity, anti-HIV activity. An effort has been done to explore the evidence based pharmacological activities of Bhurjah.

Elements of social harmony in Rig veda

Vedic literature in Sanskrit has been serving the entire world in humanistic efforts. Sri Lanka is a nation of different religions and diverse cultures and has a tradition going back to several centuries The Vedic literature is treated to be the oldest literature of the world. The Objective of this study is to identify some evidences of Social Harmony concepts in Rig Vedic Literature. This Study focused on Rigveda considering its early origin and recognition among the scholars. Mixed method including descriptive and analytical method is used to identify elements of concepts. This research presents a brief outline of the elements of social harmony, as we find it in ancient Vedic literature. Findings of the study prove that the Vedic literature speaks the ways of attaining spirituality by establishing a harmony with all beings. They built the treasure house full of human wisdom, social welfare, unity, peace and prosperity, instead of personal gain or internal prosperity at large. Vedic verses that prays for different aspects of the universal; happiness and peace. Among these elements, Universal pleasure, Collective actions of people, Stimulation of mental power, Path to wealth & happiness, Conservation of Resources, Enlightened people, Sharing of Wealth, Eco friendly life, Sustainable good life and Government, Gathered Long life, Happiness in mind and life are remarkable. These elements could be considered similar to current social harmony aspects.

The form of the ideal life in the Puranas and Dharmashastras, the beginning, the conclusion and the rituals of the Vedas

The four Vedas, divided into Rig, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva, are the basis of Indian culture and Sanskrit literature. The Vedas present the mysteries of all kinds of religions, actions and knowledge approved by the Lord in formulaic forms, which only a few learned men could benefit from. In time the Purāṇas were composed to make the mysteries prescribed in the Vedas simple, easy to understand and accessible to all ordinary people. The old says that the new becomes the old. That is, a scripture that is very old and seems to be completely new because of the relevance of the subjects it presents is ancient. Through various stories, legends and illustrations, the Purāṇas teach us to apply the meanings of the Vedas in our lives like a friend. as in Fig From the scriptures of the Vedas and others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ॥ They say that by holding it is dharma, that is, by holding or sustaining the world. The scriptures of religion say that religion rules. That is, a scripture in which religion is primarily referred to is called a scripture of religion.

“I Curse You on Her Behalf” Narratives of Sexual Assault from Sanskrit Literature

The classical Sanskrit texts composed in early India are one of the most celebrated texts from South Asia. The Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata, and the Purāṇas are an integral part of socio-cultural, and now political life of contemporary India. Texts composed in classical Sanskrit are assumed to represent an unblemished civilization, with a righteous rule and unadulterated social harmony; this is especially true about their afterlives as depicted in popular culture, cinema, and art. Often, during arguments about the safety of women in India calls are made for “going back to the ethos of ancient India culture”. This is done based on false beliefs about narratives presented in the classical Sanskrit text especially assumptions that women were “safer” in ancient India and that evils like rape, sexual assault and harassment of women did not exist. In contrast, this essay takes a closer look at the Sanskrit text, which not only narrates numerous stories of rape, but also considered rape a criminal offence.

Reworking of a Pre‑Literary Plot in the Literary Jātaka: the Case of Haribhaṭṭa's Hastī‑Jātaka

The article focuses on the comparison of a literary Sanskrit jataka with its possible Pali prototype. Haribhatta, who wrote another Jataka‑mala one or two centuries after Arya Sura, is generally believed to be Kalidasa's contemporary. Our research is devoted mainly to the approaches of a Sanskrit kavya poet handling a pre‑literary source story. We studied Haribhatta's tale of the elephant Bodhisattva (partly based on Pali jataka 514, Chaddanta‑jataka), focusing on his reworking of the plot and on the comparison of style of the two texts. The plot reworking was analyzed within the framework of narratology, revealing a deliberate artistic composition in the later Sanskrit text. The style of the Jataka‑mala bears semblance to Kalidasa's poetry, as well as to some other court Sanskrit literature works.

The personality of the poets in the Purananuru

Sangam literature is a time mirror that reflects life events in languages ​​in which the heroism and generosity of four hundred kings have been described. From time immemorial, the Guru has been revered as a deity after his mother and father as the Guru's deity. The idea that only the Guru can heal the family, the student, and the country has been around. In Sanskrit literature, poets had the right to rebuke the king and to give him loving advice to make the country prosperous for the good of a king. In the late nineteenth century, poets primarily portrayed the heroism and generosity of kings through their songs. Not only male poets but also female poets excelled in this. Songs sung by individual poets All the songs in this book are sung about public justice without being sung about anyone There are hundreds of poets who mention the names of poets but also mention the names of kings.

Gemmology and Gupta Period: Context of Precious Stones Industry in Ancient India

India has always been rich in its natural resources and its products. All these rich resources offered scope for a large number of industries, handicrafts and many other professions [I]. Likewise, industrial works and other economic professions were encouraged during the Gupta period also since raw materials were abundant for industries. Gemstone is a piece of mineral crystal that in cut and polished form is used to make jewellery or other adornments. One of the most ancient Industries of India was the precious stone Industry which includes diamonds, pearls, ruby and emerald among many others. The Guptas were also skilled in craftsmanship. They got the credit for organizing the technical skill of the craftsmen under royal supervision and inducing them to be enterprising in their trade. They inherited the fine craftsmanship of the Indians from an earlier period [II]. The science of testing gems was so perfected in India in this period as to arouse the admiration of the later European travellers of the 16th century. In the Kamasutra ruparatnapariksha (testing and valuing of precious stones etc.) are included in the list of sixty-four arts [III]. The jewellers [IV] used scales and touchstones for weighing and testing the quality and quantity of stones and metals. Such a high level of culture and the enhanced standard of living of the rich were impossible without a well developed urbanization and trade network. It is a fact from the Gupta period, trade had started falling on bad days but localized economic formations started taking place. By the time of this period, the trade become luxury oriented, a fact attested by the frequency of references to such items in the Brihatsamhita and many other ancient Sanskrit literature [V].