Sanitation Challenges Research Articles

Development of Internet of Things and Artificial Intelligence for intelligent sanitation systems: A literature review

Adequate sanitation is crucial for human health and well-being, yet billions worldwide lack access to basic facilities. This comprehensive review examines the emerging field of intelligent sanitation systems, which leverage Internet of Things (IoT) and advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies to address global sanitation challenges. The existing intelligent sanitation systems and applications is still in their early stages, marked by inconsistencies and gaps. The paper consolidates fragmented research from both academic and industrial perspectives based on PRISMA protocol, exploring the historical development, current state, and future potential of intelligent sanitation solutions. The assessment of existing intelligent sanitation systems focuses on system detection, health monitoring, and AI enhancement. The paper examines how IoT-enabled data collection and AI-driven analytics can optimize sanitation facility performance, predict system failures, detect health risks, and inform decision-making for sanitation improvements. By synthesizing existing research, identifying knowledge gaps, and discussing opportunities and challenges, this review provides valuable insights for practitioners, academics, engineers, policymakers, and other stakeholders. It offers a foundation for understanding how advanced IoT and AI techniques can enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and safety of the sanitation industry.

Charting water sanitation concerns within vulnerable communities and international contexts on X

This study used a computational exploratory approach to examine X discourse on water sanitation challenges in the Black Belt region in the United States and compared it with larger international contexts. The research sought to uncover themes that impact salient environmental health issues and support future interventions. A two-part research question addressing the nature of water issues in a local and global context, resulted in a data set (n = 12,472 observations) analyzed using computational text analysis. Findings indicated that there was limited attention of issues discussed in the Black Belt region. On the other hand, global communication resulted in a greater discussion surrounding community-level problems and the very public nature of concerns, despite both issues being public-facing. Study findings contribute to the body of knowledge on social media discourse that develops as environmental health challenges develop into broader issues that emerge as global health risks.

Genomic analysis of Salmonella Heidelberg isolated from the Brazilian poultry farms.

The rapid expansion of broiler chicken production in Brazil has presented significant sanitation challenges within the poultry industry. Among these challenges, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype Heidelberg stands as a contributor to global salmonellosis outbreaks. This study analyzed 13 draft genomes of Salmonella Heidelberg isolated from the pre-slaughter broiler chickens farms in Brazil. By conducting in silico analysis of these genomes, the study investigated genome similarity based on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and identified genes encoding resistance to antimicrobials, sanitizers, and virulence factors. Furthermore, mobile genetic elements (MGE) were identified to assess their potential role in propagating genes through horizontal gene transfer. A risk classification was also applied based on the resistomes. The genomes revealed a high prevalence of genes conferring resistance to aminoglycosides, fosfomycin, sulfonamides, tetracycline, and genes linked to quaternary ammonium resistance. The study also uncovered six Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPI) and over 100 genes encoding virulence factors. The association of MGE with antibiotic-resistant genes sul2 and blaCMY-2 raised concerns about the potential transfer to other bacteria, posing a substantial risk for spreading resistance mechanisms according to established risk protocols. Additionally, SNP analysis indicated close phylogenetic relationships among some isolates, suggesting a common origin. This study enhances our understanding of Salmonella Heidelberg strains by identifying key risk factors for transmission and revealing the association between resistance genes and MGEs. This insight provides a foundation for developing and implementing effective control, monitoring, and treatment strategies in the poultry industry.

Water scarcity and its implications on sanitation: A perspective study in an emerging city in Northern Ghana

Water scarcity is a critical global challenge affecting billions of people, particularly in developing regions like sub-Saharan Africa. In Ghana, this issue has become increasingly pronounced, with limited access to clean and safe water posing serious threats to the health and livelihoods of many communities. This study investigated the intricate relationship between water scarcity and accessibility, and the associated implications on sanitation practices in Damongo, a newly created regional capital and an emerging city. The study showed that the area faced evident water scarcity, with a daily per capita water consumption as low as 0.128 m3. Mechanized boreholes emerged as potential solutions, particularly for the 61.2% of respondents experiencing waiting times exceeding 15 min. The economic repercussions were noteworthy, as high water costs impacted livelihoods, emphasizing the need for policy interventions, especially for low-income households. Sanitation challenges are widespread, with 62.8% relying on pit latrines, and 56.1% lacking proper infrastructure. Water and sanitation-related diseases like typhoid and diarrhoea highlight the need for urgent interventions to enhance water quality and sanitation practices. Household water infrastructure analysis revealed diverse, primarily privately owned sources. Gender imbalances persist in water-fetching responsibilities, with 58.2% relying solely on females. Domestic water sources predominantly involved traditional options, potentially exposing residents to unsafe practices. Sanitation maintenance practices and intervals varied, signaling the necessity for comprehensive solutions. Households without toilets resorted to open spaces (43.6%), gutters (29.1%), and public toilets (12.7%), indicating challenges in waste disposal and sanitation facility access. Insights on the health dimension considered uncovering the prevalence of the top five water and sanitation-related diseases for 2022. These included typhoid (24.3%), diarrhoea (30.0%), Cholera (11.7%), Dysentery (14.6%), and Hepatitis (19.3%). These findings suggest the pressing need for improved sanitation and clean water access, as inadequate infrastructure and water scarcity contribute significantly to these health challenges.

Building a sustainable sanitation culture in indigenous people of Malaysia: A systematic literature study

The sanitation challenges faced by indigenous Malaysian communities are driving an urgent paradigm shift in sanitation approaches. This article highlights the journey toward the formation of a sustainable sanitation culture among indigenous Malaysians. Against the background of poor sanitation conditions in these communities, the main problems raised were a lack of access to adequate sanitation facilities and low awareness of hygiene practices. The aim of this study is to identify and analyze normative and empirical approaches that can be used to improve sanitation conditions. The research method uses a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) and qualitative analysis to understand the traditional sanitation paradigm of indigenous societies. The process follows the PRISMA circuit, involving the identification, selection, and in-depth analysis of articles from a number of databases, such as Scopus and Google Scholar, focusing on the cultural values and sanitation practices that shape their sanitation paradigm. The results show that strong partnerships between governments, NGOs, and civil society are key to achieving significant changes in the sanitation culture. The recommendations of this article include the need for investment in better sanitation infrastructure, development of inclusive education and public awareness programs, and strengthening of public participation in the planning and implementation of sanitation programs. Thus, this article provides in-depth insights into concrete efforts to create a positive transformation in sanitation culture among Malaysian natives.

Stakeholder perceptions, challenges, and sustainable solutions for achieving safely managed sanitation in Kazakhstan: a case study from a cold region

ABSTRACT In this paper, we present survey results from 30 sanitation stakeholders across the public and private sectors, professional associations, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and households in the two coldest cities of Kazakhstan. The objectives were to identify the perceived sanitation challenges, document innovative, and traditional solutions employed by the stakeholders to manage sanitation challenges during the cold season, and to propose initiatives and policy interventions to alleviate pressing sanitation issues. Commonly encountered problems included improper installation of septic tanks (e.g. above the frost line) by non-professionals and the difficulty of households to access latrines during heavy snowfall events. Ninety-three percent of respondents expressed that foul odours and sewage overflows were their primary concerns, with only 7% reporting health impacts as a primary concern. There were significant differences in the viewpoints of the respondents regarding the extent of sanitation infrastructure maintenance or upgrades needed in the two cities, suggesting regional differences across the country rather than a uniform national situation. In the context of Kazakhstan, local NGOs were identified as playing a key role in engaging with households to co-devise affordable and sustainable sanitation solutions that are suitable for cold regions, which can then be communicated to other sanitation stakeholders, including the public sector.

Evaluation of Sanitation Technologies Across Sanitation Service Chain in Kericho Town, Kenya

In 2020, over half of the world's population resided in cities, with projections indicating that by 2050, this figure will rise to 70%. Providing adequate sanitation services in urban and peri-urban areas presents significant challenges due to the dense concentration of people, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Poor sanitation practices in these areas can lead to the spread of diseases with high morbidity and mortality rates. The focus of the study was on Kericho town, Kenya, facing a notable sanitation challenge due to dilapidated sewer system and inadequate sanitation facilities . The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety of sanitation technologies used in Kericho Town. Descriptive study design was adopted. Data collection methods included surveys, interviews, and observations, with a sample size of 409 households. The findings revealed that 66.5% of the population relies on pit latrines with slabs, 13.69% use pour/manual flush systems, 11.49% have ventilated improved pit latrines, 8.07% employ automatic cistern flush, and a minimal 0.24% practice open defecation. 25% of population discharged waste directly into the sewerage system whereby 5% were considered safely managed. Additionally, 4% of waste from user interfaces was discharged directly into open ground or open drains. 2% of population used septic tanks connected to soak pits, whereas 6% of population used septic tanks connected to open ground. Sludge from septic tanks, comprising 20%, was delivered to the WWTP by exhausters for further treatment, of which only 20% underwent treatment, with the remainder released untreated into the environment. 49% of the population used lined pits, while 14% used unlined pits. Approximately 20% of faecal sludge from the pits was exhausted, with only 20% of it considered safely treated, and the remainder released into the environment. Notably, open defecation accounted for less than 1% based on the survey findings. Consequently, the current trend in faecal sludge management in Kericho Town posed potential health hazards to the community unless measures such as rehabilitating the existing wastewater treatment plant are implemented.

Water Insecurity and Rights Erosion: A Comprehensive Analysis of Rohingya Refugee Camps in New Delhi

This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the critical issue of water insecurity and its multifaceted impact on and relationship to the human rights and environmental justice conditions within Rohingya refugee camps located in New Delhi, India. A comprehensive mixed-methods approach was employed to investigate water-related challenges within a refugee camp in Madanpur Khadar, region in Delhi. Qualitative methods including focused group discussions and one-on-one household interviews were conducted to allow residents’ perceptions from diverse groups and examine their experiences. Structured surveys were administered to gather quantitative data on water access, sanitation, health, and socio-economic factors. Additionally,, literature surveys and document archival research provided contextual insights. This study underscores the pressing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) challenges faced by Rohingya refugees in the area, revealing irregular water supply, impacting residents’ daily lives and hygiene practices. The majority of families in the camp, with an average of 6 members in each family, can only collect 30–40 L of water to meet all their needs, from consumption to personal hygiene, which is significantly insufficient. This situation has resulted in severe health consequences for the camp residents. Alarmingly, over 90% of the female respondents reported experiencing issues such as urinary infections. This paper gives a comprehensive analysis of the multidimensionality of rights that intersect with and are affected by WaSH issues. The poor WaSH conditions in the camp directly hinder the fulfillment of fundamental human rights. It not only disrupts the basic sanitation need but has negative economic repercussions and causes mental distress. This study concludes by targeted recommendations aimed at improving the conditions prevailing within the camp.

Multidimensional assessment of a Nature-based Solution for decentralized greywater treatment in Costa Rica

In Costa Rica, water supply networks provide water to over 94% of the country's population. However, only an estimated 14% of wastewater receives proper treatment. The lack of centralized sanitation infrastructure has resulted in the use of septic tanks and the discharge of untreated greywater into rivers, causing environmental degradation of surface waters. Retrofitting conventional centralized sewer networks and treatment plants into the existing urbanization presents extensive social, economic, and technical challenges. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for greywater treatment can reduce pollutant loads and improve the environmental status of water resources and represent an opportunity for technical leapfrogging towards sustainable, decentralized on-site treatment and reuse. However, the implementation of NbS in urban areas poses significant challenges due to the complex interplay of social, regulatory, and economic factors. Specifically, for on-site greywater treatment systems, meeting several criteria, including efficient pollutant removal, affordability, and public acceptance is essential for successful implementation and operation. This study assesses the technical, socio-economic, and political-regulatory dimensions relevant to implementing NbS for decentralized greywater treatment. To conduct this research, a Real-World Lab was established in the Great Metropolitan Area of Costa Rica, employing a transdisciplinary approach. This approach provided a physical space and societal context to integrate site-specific aspects and understand the various factors that influence the implementation and upscaling of NbS. As part of our methodology, we analyzed the water quality parameters and treatment performance of a NbS prototype for decentralized greywater treatment. Within the Real-World Lab framework, we conducted interviews, surveys, and field observations to investigate socio-economic and political-regulatory aspects. Our results highlight the technical potential of the NbS prototype. However, the limitation lies in the governance scheme and financing mechanisms required for upscaling the NbS as a decentralized on-site technology across the country. Our multidimensional assessment provides insights into the requirements for widespread implementation of NbS, applicable to other regions facing similar retrofitting sanitation challenges.

Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools: A Catalyst for Upholding Human Rights to Water and Sanitation in Anápolis, Brazil

Ensuring access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities, along with behavior change education in schools, is essential for fostering a conducive learning environment and promoting principles of inclusion, dignity, and equality. This study focuses on 12 primary schools in Anápolis, Brazil, with a total of 4394 students and 248 teachers. WASH assessments were conducted using a questionnaire, observations of water and sanitation facilities, and microbiological analysis. Between 2018 and 2020, the proportion of schools with safely managed drinking water increased from 42% to 92%. However, sanitation conditions in the schools were categorized as basic, with hygiene services rated as limited in 92% of the schools due to the absence of soap. While this study shows that Anápolis schools generally meet WASH guidelines for basic/advanced drinking water services, there is a crucial need for improvements in both hardware and software facilities to address sanitation and hygiene challenges.

Neglected second and third generation challenges of urban sanitation: A review of the marginality and exclusion dimensions of safely managed sanitation

Neglected second and third generation challenges of urban sanitation: A review of the marginality and exclusion dimensions of safely managed sanitation

Striking a Balance: Decentralized and Centralized Wastewater Treatment Systems for Advancing Sustainable Development Goal 6

Water scarcity and sanitation pose a critical global challenge worsened by population growth and the finite nature of freshwater resources. Despite the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG6) advocating for universal water and sanitation access, progress remains insufficient. Presently, approximately 50% of generated wastewater is released into the environment without adequate treatment, emphasizing the urgent need to address this issue. This article examines the socio‐economic and technical aspects of both centralized and decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DWTS) and assesses the environmental impact, spatial footprint, and energy usage across treatment technologies. An economic analysis underscores the cost advantages of DWTS, especially in sparsely populated regions. With modular designs, DWTS not only provides environmental and economic advantages but also enables water reuse. The research concludes that adopting DWTS is crucial in achieving SDG6 targets and ensuring universal access to safe sanitation, especially in low‐density and newly developed areas. This thorough investigation of wastewater management contributes to the ongoing dialogue on sustainable solutions amidst escalating global challenges of water scarcity and sanitation.

Water and Sanitation Access for Children in Alabama.

Safe drinking water and closed sanitation are fundamental to health and are assumed in the United States, however, gaps remain, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities. We sought to describe household sanitation access for children in rural Alabama and local health provider knowledge of sanitation related health concerns. Data were collected from self-administered surveys obtained from children enrolled in a larger cross-sectional study to determine soil transmitted helminthiasis prevalence in Alabama, from a survey of health providers from local federally qualified health centers and from a baseline knowledge check of Alabama health providers enrolled in an online sanitation health course. Surveys completed on 771 children (approximately 10% of county pediatric population) revealed less than half lived in homes connected to centralized sewers; 12% reported "straight-pipes," a method of discharging untreated sewage to the ground outside the home, and 8% reported sewage contamination of their home property in the past year. Additionally, 15% of respondents were likely to use well water. The local health providers surveyed did not include routine screening for water and sanitation failures or associated infections. Regional healthcare providers have limited knowledge of soil transmitted helminthiasis. A significant number of children from rural counties of Alabama with high rates of poverty reside in homes with water and sanitation challenges that predominantly affect African American families. This is an under-recognized health risk by local health providers, and its contribution to well-documented health disparities in this region is poorly understood.

Is Pollution the Primary Driver of Infectious Syndemics?

Syndemics, the adverse interaction of two or more coterminous diseases or other negative health conditions, have probably existed since human settlement, plant and animal domestication, urbanization, and the growth of social inequality beginning about 10-12,000 years ago. These dramatic changes in human social evolution significantly increased opportunities for the spread of zoonotic infectious diseases in denser human communities with increased sanitation challenges. In light of a growing body of research that indicates that anthropogenic air pollution causes numerous threats to health and is taking a far greater toll on human life and wellbeing than had been reported, this paper proposes the possibility that air pollution is now the primary driver of infectious disease syndemics. In support of this assertion, this paper reviews the growth and health impacts of air pollution, the relationship of air pollution to the development and spread of infectious diseases, and reported cases of air pollution-driven infectious disease syndemics, and presents public health recommendations for leveraging the biosocial insight of syndemic theory in responding to infectious disease.

Analisis Potensi dan Kemajuan dalam Pengelolaan Air Bersih dan Sanitasi Berkelanjutan (SDGs 6) di Indonesia

The aim of this research is to provide an analysis of how efforts have been made to achieve Sustainable Development Goal number six (SDGs 6), namely Clean Water and Sanitation. The main focus of this research is to assess the implementation of policies and projects related to water and sanitation and understand the impact they will have on society and the environment. This study collects data from government reports and other relevant research. Universal access to clean drinking water, adequate sanitation, efficient water use, and protection of water ecosystems are the main indicators of SDGs 6. The research results show great progress in achieving SDGs 6 in several aspects. Access to clean water has increased and many sanitation projects have been implemented successfully. Challenges remain, especially in achieving sanitation goals in rural areas and in managing water quality. Integrated water resource management and protection of water ecosystems are highlighted in this analysis. The research also underscores the need for international cooperation and community participation in addressing clean water and sanitation challenges. Data limitations and unequal access continue to be important issues that need to be addressed. Therefore, this study recommends increased detailed data collection and capacity building of local communities. By detailing the challenges and potential solutions, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of achieving SDGs 6. The implications of these findings can help civil society in designing more effective policies and projects to achieve clean water and sustainable sanitation.

Assessment of water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities to eliminate open defecation in public secondary schools in Obollo education zone, Enugu State, Nigeria (2018-2022)

In Nigeria, a target was set in 2015 to eradicate open defecation in both private and public spaces. This study aimed to evaluate the availability of water sources, sanitation, and hygiene facilities in public secondary schools within the Obollo Education Zone of Enugu State, Nigeria. The objectives included assessing the provision of sanitation facilities, hygiene amenities, and potable water sources in these schools. The research utilized a survey design and incorporated both primary and secondary data. Random sampling was employed to select schools, while purposive sampling was used to select respondents. The findings revealed that a significant number of schools lacked adequate sanitation and hygiene facilities, as well as access to clean water sources. Consequently, it is recommended that schools intensify efforts to ensure the availability of sanitation facilities, promote hygiene practices, and explore community-driven initiatives to address water and sanitation challenges.

Sustainability of Simplified Sewer systems

The universal access to safely managed sanitation remains one of the challenges to achieving the UN SDG target 6.2 in unplanned urban settlements including the Vingunguti area in Dar es Salaam City which is high-density populated. In an attempt to address this challenge, a simplified sewer system was piloted as an option for achieving safely managed sanitation in this particular area. The objective of this study was to assess the sustainability of the piloted simplified sewer system for its potentiality to up-scale and replication in areas with similar sanitation challenges in the country. Methodology involved collection of data on performance of different components of the sanitation service chain in the study area; and determination of sustainability index using a set of indicators. Data collection techniques included literature reviews, household questionnaires, expert surveys, and physical observations. Data analysis utilized the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to assign weights to sustainability indicators, while the urban sanitation status index (USSI) was used to evaluate the status of the sanitation service chain, and the sanitation sustainability index (SSI) determined the level of sustainability of the sewerage system. Results showed that the emptying and transport component of the sanitation service chain performed better, with a USSI value of 0.905. However, the system performed poorly on the complementary services (stormwater, greywater, and solid waste management), which had a USSI value of 0.552, probably due to fewer investments in these services. On the other hand, the sustainability of the simplified sewer system was found to be high, with an SSI score of 76.5%. Hence, the study concludes that, simplified sewer system is an appropriate option for addressing safely managed sanitation in unplanned urban settlements where connection to conventional sewer systems is challenging. Thus, the system in Vingunguti area can be up-scaled and replicated elsewhere with similar conditions in the country.

Sanitation Knowledge and Practices of Malaysian Food SMEs: Addressing Current Issues and Readiness in Acceptance of Green Sanitation Technology

Sanitation is crucial in the food industry, involving cleaning and disinfection processes to ensure facility cleanliness. This study examined sanitation knowledge and practices among small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Malaysia's frozen meat sector. It also evaluated the acceptance of eco-friendly sanitation technology, specifically an electrolysis unit producing electrolyzed water. Data was collected through an open-ended online questionnaire using Google Forms. The questionnaire comprises demographic profiles, sanitation knowledge, sanitation program design knowledge, sanitation challenges, and the acceptance of integrating a green cleaner with the current sanitation program. Results show SME manufacturers possess sanitation knowledge but face implementation challenges due to absent sanitation programs, skilled labor shortage, hot water supply issues, difficulty cleaning narrow spaces in equipment, chemical storage, and budget constraints. Due to low-temperature operations, only 73 % of frozen meat industries use hot water for sanitation. Additionally, 45 % lack wastewater treatment, leading to chemical residue discharge into municipal drainage. SMEs show interest in electrolyzed water for its dual role as a cleaning and disinfecting agent. The technology's room-temperature efficacy and environmentally friendly degradation into salt and water appeal to SMEs. Adopting electrolysis sanitation technology is expected to significantly reduce costs by utilizing only salt, water, and electricity for electrolyzed water generation.

Biosecurity Challenges: How Defense Strategies Against Tuberculosis In Asean Countries

This comprehensive research provides a thorough analysis of tuberculosis (TB) incidence trends and sanitation challenges within the ASEAN region spanning from 2005 to 2021. It underscores the critical need for robust defense strategies against TB, particularly in light of setbacks exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The research, conducted in Jakarta, Indonesia, from June to July 2023, delved into biosecurity challenges of tuberculosis in ASEAN countries, using a quantitative approach and cross-sectional design. Data from 2005 to 2021, sourced from the ASEAN database, underwent descriptive statistics and trend analysis to explore TB incidence rates, ensuring a comprehensive investigation scope. The study places emphasis on the imperative of implementing comprehensive measures encompassing prevention, screening, swift diagnosis, utilization of advanced treatment regimens, and ensuring robust patient support systems. Moreover, it highlights the pivotal role of addressing sanitation challenges, as substandard conditions significantly heighten the risks of TB transmission. The study's scope encompasses an array of critical subjects, with a central focus on TB incidence rates, as well as the crucial aspects of access to improved sanitation facilities and sanitation services. The conclusion is the ASEAN region, especially the Philippines, faces a notable tuberculosis burden, coupled with uneven access to sanitation. Effective interventions and collaboration are vital for improving public health and sanitation standards in ASEAN countries.

Water quality for human consumption in semi artesian wells in the city of Lábrea/AM

The disorderly urban growth of cities results in the contamination of surface water and groundwater. In Brazil, one of the main sanitation challenges is to make drinking water available to the population. In view of the above, the aim of this study was to assess the quality of water for human consumption in the municipality of Labrea/AM. Six (6) sampling points were selected in different locations in the urban area of the municipality of Labrea, including two (2) municipal water distribution wells and four (4) household wells. After the physical-chemical and microbiological analyses, the following parameters were determined: temperature, turbidity, pH, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, BOD5, total phosphorus, total and thermotolerant coliforms. The data was compared with current legislation, including Ministry of Health Ordinance No. 888/2021. The variables total dissolved solids, total phosphorus and temperature were all within the legal limits. On the other hand, it is worth noting that of the six points sampled, four indicated the presence of coliforms, and house 4 showed the presence of total and thermotolerant coliforms. The presence of pathogens in the water requires urgent control measures, whether it's raising awareness among the population, continuous cleaning of household reservoirs or water distribution pipes, since one of the possible consequences of drinking unsafe water will be high numbers of water-borne diseases.