Sanitary Survey Research Articles

Recreational water quality in the Caspian Sea

Health-based monitoring of the Caspian Sea in Turkmenistan and Iran suggests that bathers are intermittently subject to increased levels of faecal pollution which may lead to gastrointestinal illness. This is the first co-ordinated monitoring programme of recreational waters in the Caspian region and highlights the need to extend such a programme to all countries bordering the Caspian Sea. The novel approach of monitoring that combines risk assessment (water quality monitoring plus a sanitary survey) and risk management, as applied here, allows the identification of possible sources of pollution and the levels of microbiological risk that bathers are subject to. Hence, this allows suitable management interventions to be identified and implemented in the long-term.

Hydrogen sulphide production tests and the detection of groundwater faecal contamination by septic seepage

The 'H2S test' is being advanced for microbiological water quality testing where conventional coliform based methods are impractical or too expensive. It involves ambient temperature incubation of water samples with nutrient formulated to generate hydrogen sulphide when 'faecal' bacteria are present. Recently a WHO review identified several concerns including the limited number of comparative studies, formulation variability, and false positives and negatives. In response we have compared the H2S test's ability to detect and quantify faecal contamination in an aquifer impacted by septic tank leachfields with measurements obtained concurrently using conventional bacterial indicators, coliphages, faecal sterol biomarkers, Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Like these other analytes, H2S testing detected a contamination gradient ranging from high (septic liquid) to moderate (exfiltration zones), to background (e.g. domestic bores), corresponding to indicator removal + dilution by factors > 10(6). Presence/absence tests could not distinguish between heavily and slightly contaminated waters, whereas multi-tube testing (e.g. 10 x 10 mL arrays) did. It was concluded that while the WHO review concerns are justified, the H2S test performance shows promise in sanitary survey work, can be improved by employing an mpn approach and has potential to aid in the protection of source water and identifying contaminated groundwater.

Microbiological risk assessment of Agios Georgios source supplies in Northwestern Greece based on faecal coliforms determination and sanitary inspection survey

The assessment of potential risks from microbiological contamination of drinking water supplies is of greatest concern to human health. The study involves the examination of water samples from Agios Georgios source that supplies the capitals, the major towns and several villages of Arta, Preveza and Lefkada prefectures, in Northwestern Greece. The study includes the sanitary inspection survey of the source and the microbiological examination of water samples on a monthly basis during the period February 1996–June 1999 except of Augusts ( n = 38). The microbiological risk assessment (MRA) approach of World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines was applied to enhance the source protection. The faecal contamination of the source water was quantified using faecal coliforms ( FC) as indicator bacteria. Microbiological analyses indicate that of the 38 samples analyzed the FC failure rate (positive samples) was 63.2% according to the limit set by the 98/83 directive of the European Union. The 36.8% of the source water samples was found in conformity with WHO guidelines, 42.1% of low risk, 21.1% of intermediate risk while there was not found samples of high or very high risk. Failure rates displayed a seasonal trend being greater during the winter, decreased during spring and autumn and lower during summer. This observation was explained partially by a significant positive relationship with the rainfall amount ( r Spearmann = 0.890, P = 0.001). The sanitary inspection score was found 5/10 during the whole survey period that corresponds to an intermediate risk of source contamination. The color-code classification for FC contamination was found 36.8% A (blue, no risk), 42.1% B (green, low risk) and 21.1% C (yellow, intermediate risk). The previous risks were combined for the assessment of waterborne risk, which was determined as intermediate to high; therefore there is a need for high action priority. The potential remedial actions were also suggested in order to improve the source protection of such supplies.

The utility of the AC/TC ratio for watershed management: a case study

A human-impacted watershed was monitored during the dry summer seasons in 2002 and 2003 to investigate the impact of providing access to sewer mains to local village residences. Faecal coliform concentrations were monitored at select sites along the 30-mile stretch of creek, together with faecal streptococci, enterococci and total coliforms. Analysis of the results found that levels of faecal coliforms were inadequate at identifying significant known influxes of human and animal sewage established by sanitary survey. However, the bacterial ratio of atypical colonies to total coliform colonies (AC/TC), obtained from the total coliform membrane filter assay on m-Endo media, correctly indexed human faecal impact of inadequately sewered villages located along the creek. In addition, the AC/TC ratio correctly classified the predominant source of faecal runoff in the creek headwaters as agricultural, and indicated when aged agricultural faecal material was introduced by tributaries. An approach for watershed management that uses the AC/TC ratio in addition to levels of bacteria is proposed.

Sanitary Survey in Gondar Town

Background: The health and well being of population is directly affected by extremely low coverage of water supply and sanitation. Objectives: This study aims to assess the environmental sanitation status of Gondar town. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on the basis of the administrative structure of the town. The town was stratified into high density and low-density areas from which households were selected randomly from each stratum. A structured questionnaire was used for the household survey. Results: There is a relatively high risk of exposure to poor environmental conditions in high population than low population density area. The association between educational status and income with availability of latrine was statistically significant, the literates and the economically better-off have a better sanitary facility. Excreta disposal facilities are generally inadequate and poorly maintained. The per capita water consumption was 12 liters/day, which is very low when compared to 30-40 liters per day for urban residents, as per the WHO standard. Conclusion and recommendation: This study found that the sanitary status of the town to be poor. Thus, the municipality should give priority attention to improve the sanitary conditions in the town. Ethiop.J.Health Dev. 2003;(3):215-219

Evaluating Oregon's beach sites for application to United States Environmental Protection Agency's BEACH Act criteria

With the passage of the Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health (BEACH) Act in 2000, coastal states were mandated to assess and sample coastal recreational waters for bacterial ambient water quality parameters. The assessment of beach sites required the application of federal guidelines and a tiered approach to delineating the beaches. Eighty-seven beach sites in Oregon were evaluated and ranked by use, available information, pollution threats, sanitary survey and monitoring data results, exposure considerations, and economic/development factors. This ranking resulted in 19 high priority beaches (tier 1), five medium priority beaches (tier 2), 23 low priority beaches, and 40 beaches with a rank of none in Oregon.

Application and refinement of the WHO risk framework for recreational waters in Sydney, Australia

Local adaptation of the World Health Organisation (WHO) Farnham approach to managing pathogen risk in recreational waters was readily achieved given the extensive microbiological beach data for Sydney, and a clear understanding of applying the 'Annapolis Protocol' sanitary survey component to beach classification. Daily enterococci counts were predicted by rainfall (>10 mm in 24 h or >5 mm over 4-5 days), or by wind direction/speed, sunlight and tide during dry periods. Quantitative microbial risk assessment models (maximum risk exponential model for gastroenteritis and adenovirus exponential model for respiratory illness) fitted the United Kingdom epidemiological data and show potential for use. Flexibility in interpreting what is important for local conditions is essential, illustrated by replacing the general descriptions in the Farnham report with more ridged values for stormwater-impacted beaches. Hence, a user-friendly format for bather risk management, based on key environmental predictors of faecal pollution (such as rainfall, wind direction and tide) should largely replace the need for regular and costly microbiological testing; providing risk estimates in real time and allowing immediate control measures, such as signage or temporary beach closures. Ongoing testing resources should be directed to understanding the source(s) of faecal contamination, comparing enterococci/enteric virus survival under warm Australian conditions and spot checks for recalibration of environmental factors.

Performance‐based approach for Groundwater Systems

This article suggests a more objective approach to evaluating the condition of a water system ‐ including source, treatment, and distribution ‐ based on performance data. Most groundwater systems are currently evaluated by managers and regulators through a combination of compliance monitoring and sanitary survey inspections. However, field experience has demonstrated types of monitoring that can be performed at groundwater systems to comprehensively evaluate their ability to resist microbiological contamination. Utility managers will benefit from this information because it shows how process‐control‐type monitoring, compared with nonregulatory goals, can help improve utilities' ability to prevent contamination. It is hoped that the information provided will encourage groundwater utilities to begin collecting and analyzing performance data and lead to a better understanding of how each barrier can be improved.

Azeite de oliva: incidência de adulteraçöes entre os anos de 1993 a 2000

In the period of January 1993 to September 2000 were analyzed at Adolfo Lutz Institute236 samples of olive oils and in all of the samples the purity was verified through the analysis of the fattyacids profile, using gas chromatographic techniques. In 136 samples it was also verified if the classificationon the label was in accordance with the quality. The absorption measures in the ultraviolet spectra, at 232and 270 nm were the parameters evaluated. It was observed that 43 samples (18,2%) were adulterated andthe main fraud type was the addition of vegetable oils of lower commercial value, mainly soybean oil.Considering the label evaluation, 7 samples (5,1%), of the 136 analyzed, presented incorrect qualityclassification. It was verified that from the total samples, 77 were picked by the Sanitary Survey Watchand, of these, 67 were picked from 1997 to 2000, due the cooperation programs established from 1997between the Adolfo Lutz Institute and the Center of Sanitary Survey Watch of the State of Sao Paulo.

How Effective is the TCR in Assessing Outbreak Vulnerability?

Previous studies have shown that waterborne disease outbreaks can occur in systems that have not exceeded the maximum contaminant level (MCL) regulations for coliform bacteria. The utility of the revised Total Coliform Rule (TCR), which has been in effect since Dec. 31, 1990, was evaluated as an indicator of outbreak vulnerability of public water systems. This study compared TCR violations for water systems that had and had not reported an outbreak during 1991–98. Few outbreak systems had violated the MCL in the 12‐month period before the outbreak, and MCL and monitoring violations did not differ significantly for the outbreak and nonoutbreak systems studied. These findings suggest that the TCR is not able to identify those water systems that are vulnerable to an outbreak. Requirements may need to be supplemented by an additional indicator and additional monitoring for systems that currently collect few samples. When evaluating the adequacy of an indicator, it is important to consider waterborne agents and the frequency of sample collection. The thoroughness of a sanitary survey is also important to detect and correct deficiencies that might lead to an outbreak. Current TCR monitoring focuses on the detection of coliforms in the distribution system after treatment; however, it may be more effective—especially for small groundwater systems—to monitor source water quality and assess the potential for contamination from sewage discharges and surface water runoff rather than to increase distribution system monitoring.

Applicability and realibility of World health Organisation sanitary survey(ss) methoid in bore water quality analysis in Uyo.

Applicability and realibility of World health Organisation sanitary survey(ss) methoid in bore water quality analysis in Uyo.

Routine Detection of Salmonella Species in Water: Comparative Evaluation of the ISO and PROBELIA™ Polymerase Chain Reaction Methods

Water is one of the main transmission routes for Salmonella spp., the causative agents of salmonellosis in humans and animals. This worldwide sanitary problem requires rapid and accurate analyses to be realized so that advisories for exposed people are timely and reliable. Because the traditional method, the ISO 6340 method, does not meet the criterion of rapidity, there was a need for a quicker method. To fulfill this need, a comparative evaluation between the ISO method and one based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the PROBELIA, was performed. Waters from different origins were tested either directly or after artificial contamination with selected Salmonella strains isolated from the environment. The results clearly demonstrate that the PCR-based method can advantageously replace the ISO 6340 method. It is quicker, less labor intensive, reproducible, and provides results that match perfectly to those obtained by the ISO method. Furthermore, the PROBELIA method meets the requirements for an efficient sanitary survey: high numbers of samples processed at the same time, reduced cost, and results within 2 days.

Diagnóstico das condições higiênico-sanitárias e microbiológicas de lactários hospitalares

Based on the assumption that foodstulfs can be the vehicle of transmission of microorganisms and microbial metabolics and considering lacteal formulas to be a nutritional and therapeutic basis for hospitalized children, the purpose of the study is the evaluation of the effect of the hygienic-sanitary conditions of hospital lactaries on the microbiological quality of the food served by them. A sanitary survey and microbiological analyses of lacteal formulas were undertaken, as also of the raw materials from which the utensils used were made, as well as of the conditions both the environment and the personnel, at two hospital lactaries in Florianópolis city, SC, Brazil. On the basis of a sanitary inspection questionnaire the Lactary Services showed good hygienic-sanitary conditions. As for the milk formulas, 45.9% of the samples were contaminated by coliform group. A high level of contamination was also formad especially on nipples and plastic jars registering, respectively 75% and 58.3% of coliforms. The presence of E. coli and S. aureus was found on the hands and S. aureus was found on in the oropharynx of the lactary personnel.

Evaluation of daqahla wastewater treatment plant, aerated lagoon and ponds system

In Egypt, Daqahla wastewater treatment plant (WTP) includes two anaerobic ponds, one aerated lagoon followed by three maturation ponds. It started operation in 1989. This plant is chosen as an example for evaluation as a cost-effective method for wastewater treatment in rural areas. A sanitary survey, laboratory analysis and cost survey were carried out during the period between December 1991 to September 1992. It was found that Daqahla community has high strength wastewater characterised by an average BOD5 of 454 mg/l and average SS of 508 mg/l. Furthermore, it was noticed that Daqahla WTP was loaded with an actual flow (833 m3/d) higher than the design flow (520 m3/d). In addition there was a wide fluctuation in the loads applied to the system. The system was evaluated, and the average removal efficiencies of suspended solids, BOD5 and COD were 92%, 95% and 93% respectively. While there was no removal of ammonia and phosphate, with respect to the efficiency of the anaerobic ponds, it was noticed that about 50% of the organic loading was removed and this is consistent with the literature. In order to upgrade the efficiency of the aerated lagoon and the first maturation pond, the design load and detention time must be taken into consideration. Sludge removal processes must be considered since the first maturation ponds was working as a settling pond. It was noticed that the second and the third maturation ponds were working as facultative ponds. To upgrade their efficiencies, the actual organic loading must not exceed the design load with a minimum retention time of 3 days per pond. The cost survey indicates that the construction cost is 63 LE/cap. Land costs in delta and desert areas are 19 and 2 LE/cap., respectively (acre prices in delta and desert are 40000 and 4000 LE respectively. Total construction cost in the delta is 82 LE/cap., while in the desert, the total construction cost is 65 LE/cap. Furthermore, the operation and maintenance cost is 12 LE/cap. year.

Sanitary survey of private drinking water reservoirs in Northern Jordan

A sanitary survey for individual drinking water reservoirs in the rural areas in northern Jordan was conducted using purpose designed forms. 567 water samples were collected from the four main types of private reservoirs. 228 from cisterns, 128 from under‐ground concrete reservoirs 92 from ground‐level metal tanks, and 119 from taps receiving water from roof metal tanks. Twenty‐four more samples were collected directly from public supply systems. Water samples containing E. coli were considered contaminated. The results indicated that although water is supplied to houses free from contamination, more than 37.4% of private drinking water reservoirs in the rural areas were contaminated including 53.9% of cisterns and 30.9% of the reservoirs used to store water coming from public supply and 20% of tap water coming from roof tanks were contaminated. Seepage pits located within 15 m of the underground water reservoirs (at the same level or higher) significantly (p < 0.05) increased the possibility of water con...

Evaluation of Daqahla wastewater treatment plant, aerated lagoon and ponds system

In Egypt, Daqahla wastewater treatment plant (WTP) includes two anaerobic ponds, one aerated lagoon followed by three maturation ponds. It started operation in 1989. This plant is chosen as an example for evaluation as a cost-effective method for wastewater treatment in rural areas.A sanitary survey, laboratory analysis and cost survey were carried out during the period between December 1991 to September 1992. It was found that Daqahla community has high strength wastewater characterised by an average BOD5 of 454 mg/l and average SS of 508 mg/l. Furthermore, it was noticed that Daqahla WTP was loaded with an actual flow (833 m3/d) higher than the design flow (520 m3/d). In addition there was a wide fluctuation in the loads applied to the system. The system was evaluated, and the average removal efficiencies of suspended solids, BOD5 and COD were 92%, 95% and 93% respectively. While there was no removal of ammonia and phosphate, with respect to the efficiency of the anaerobic ponds, it was noticed that about 50% of the organic loading was removed and this is consistent with the literature. In order to upgrade the efficiency of the aerated lagoon and the first maturation pond, the design load and detention time must be taken into consideration. Sludge removal processes must be considered since the first maturation ponds was working as a settling pond. It was noticed that the second and the third maturation ponds were working as facultative ponds. To upgrade their efficiencies, the actual organic loading must not exceed the design load with a minimum retention time of 3 days per pond.The cost survey indicates that the construction cost is 63 LE/cap. Land costs in delta and desert areas are 19 and 2 LE/cap., respectively (acre prices in delta and desert are 40000 and 4000 LE respectively). Total construction cost in the delta is 82 LE/cap., while in the desert, the total construction cost is 65 LE/cap. Furthermore, the operation and maintenance cost is 12 LE/cap.year.

A model for approving and controlling sea water pollution for recreational activity

A model for assessing approval of a beach for recreational water activity was proposed. The model is based upon a sanitary survey together with intensive microbiological monitoring three times a day, five times a week for a month. In highly populated areas, continuous surveys once a day, five days a week are needed in order to assure the cleanliness and safety of these beaches. Due to our intensive monitoring system, we can assure that Tel‐Aviv has one of the cleanest beaches near a metropolitan area in the Mediterranean Sea.

EDUCATING RURAL COMMUNITY LEADERS IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES1

ABSTRACT: Providing adequate wastewater treatment facilities for the citizens in small rural communities in the United States can cost millions of dollars. An educational program has been developed and conducted in Ohio to teach local officials about wastewater treatment alternatives. The five‐session workshop covers wastewater treatment principles, needs assessment, system management, and resource gathering. The knowledge and skills gained by the 96 community leaders who participated in six workshops were measured using a pretest/pest test and surveys conducted during the workshops. From 25 percent to 100 percent of the participants increased their knowledge of treatment systems, alternatives, and relative costs. From 23 percent to 84 percent applied new skills, such as conducting a sanitary survey or examining treatment systems. The pretest also revealed previous knowledge of the participants in the areas of system maintenance and consultant qualifications.

Role of the sanitary engineer in public health

This role is exemplified through four cases: the Zermatt typhoid epidemics of 1963, a sanitary survey in Ouagadougou, the bioaccumulation of pollutants in the burbots of Swiss waters and the damages of earthwork in developing countries (roads and dams). The dynamic feature of the concept of "environmental health" is underlined and justifies the inclusion of public health subjects in the training curricula of sanitary engineers.

Niveau de contamination microbiologique de quelques établissements d'abattage et de charcuterie “Approuvé Canada”

AbstractSix to seven consecutive sanitary surveys were conducted in five different “Canada Approved” meat packing plants and slaughterhouses in order to establish the level of bacterial contamination on working surfaces as well as on surfaces of slaughtered animals (chicken and beef) during their processing. The various microbiological parameters evaluated were total aerobic plate count at 22 and 35°C, total and fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, molds and yeasts and Salmonella. A total of 634 samples was collected at different critical control points during these sanitary surveys in 197677. Contamination of the working surfaces in various plants varied from 106 to 108/77cm2(12 in2) for the total aerobic plate count at 22 and 35°C; 104 to 105 for yeasts and molds; 103 to 105 for total coliform and 103 for fecal streptococci, while only a few fecal coliform and Salmonella were isolated. Samples at the broiler plant showed an initial level of Salmonella of 76.9%.Surfaces of beef carcasses at the packing plants were also monitored; the total aerobic plate counts fluctuated from 1O4 to 109/77cm2. This high level of contamination could contribute to the high bacterial counts on the working surfaces. At time of sampling, every plant was inspected, the results of the latest sanitary survey discussed, and improved cleaning and disinfection techniques were suggested. The level of contamination was reduced considerably, as evidenced after the final sanitary survey which showed a 1,000 fold decrease in total aerobic plate counts. Salmonella positives decreased to 4.5% at the broiler slaughtering plant. We can conclude from this work that it is possible, with good manufacturing practices and appropriate cleaning and sanitizing procedures, to maintain low microbial levels on equipment and working surfaces.